School district




A school district is a special-purpose district that operates local public primary and secondary schools in various nations.




Contents






  • 1 United States


    • 1.1 History


    • 1.2 Terminology


      • 1.2.1 Schools


      • 1.2.2 Districts


        • 1.2.2.1 Teacher assignment practices in school districts








  • 2 Europe


  • 3 Examples


  • 4 See also


  • 5 References


  • 6 Further reading


  • 7 External links





United States


See also: Lists of school districts in the United States

In the U.S, public schools belong to school districts, which are governed by school boards. Each district is an independent special-purpose government, or dependent school systems, under the guidelines of each U.S. state government and local school boards. A school district is a legally separate body corporate and politic. School districts are local governments with powers similar to that of a town or a county including taxation and eminent domain, except in Virginia, whose school divisions have no taxing authority and must depend on another local government (county, city, or town) for funding. Its governing body, which is typically elected by direct popular vote but may be appointed by other governmental officials, is called a school board, board of trustees, board of education, school committee, or the like. This body appoints a superintendent, usually an experienced public school administrator, to function as the district's chief executive for carrying out day-to-day decisions and policy implementations. The school board may also exercise a quasi-judicial function in serious employee or student discipline matters.


School districts in the Midwest and West tend to cross municipal boundaries, while school districts in New England and the Mid-Atlantic regions tend to adhere to city, township, and/or county boundaries.[1] As of 1951[update] school districts were independent governmental units in 26 states, while in 17 states there were mixes of independent school districts and school districts subordinate to other local governments. In nine states there were only school districts subordinate to local governments.[2]


Not all school systems constitute school districts as distinct bodies corporate. In most Southern states, school systems operate either as an arm of county government, or at least share coextensive boundaries with the state's counties. In Maryland, most school systems are run at the county level, but the Baltimore City system operates separately, at a county-equivalent level. In New York, most school districts are separate governmental units with the power to levy taxes and incur debt, except for the five cities with population over 125,000, where the schools are operated directly by the municipalities.[3] The Hawaii State Department of Education functions as a single statewide school district. This is unique among the states, but the District of Columbia Public Schools operates district public schools in Washington, DC and the Puerto Rico Department of Education operates all public schools in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, thus they also function as single school districts.



History


From 1942 to 1951 the number of school districts declined from 108,579 to 70,452, a decrease by 38,127 or 35%.[4] Many states had passed laws facilitating school district consolidation. In 1951 the majority of the school districts in existence were rural school districts only providing elementary education, and some school districts did not operate schools but instead provided transportation to other schools. The Midwest (North Central U.S.) had a large number of rural school districts.[2]


Previously areas of the Unorganized Borough of Alaska were not served by school districts, but instead served by schools directly operated by the Alaska Department of Education and by Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools. The state schools were transferred to the Alaska State-Operated School System (SOS) after the Alaska Legislature created it in 1971; that agency was terminated in 1975, with its schools transferred to the newly created Alaska Unorganized Borough School District, which was broken apart into twenty-one school districts the following year.[5]


In the 2002 Census of Governments, the United States Census Bureau enumerated the following numbers of school systems in the United States:



  • 13,506 school district governments

  • 178 state-dependent school systems

  • 1,330 local-dependent school systems

  • 1,196 education service agencies and (agencies providing support services to public school systems)


School districts in the US have reduced the number of their employees by 3.3%, or 270,000 between 2008 and 2012, owing to a decline in property tax revenues during and after the Great Recession.[6]



Terminology


Although these terms can vary slightly between various states and regions, these are typical definitions for school district constitution:



Schools



  • An elementary or primary school usually includes kindergarten and grades one through five or six. In some school districts, these grades are divided into two schools. Primary school is most commonly used for schools housing students in kindergarten through grade two or three in districts where the older elementary students are in intermediate schools (see below).

  • A middle school usually includes grades six or seven through eight or nine. In some places, the alternative terms junior high school or intermediate school are still used. Junior high school often refers to schools that cover grades seven through nine. Intermediate school is also used for schools that cover grades three through five (or so) when they are separated from elementary schools.

  • A high school usually includes grades nine or ten through twelve and may also include grades seven and eight. There are many high schools that cover only grades ten to twelve; this type of school is sometimes referred to as a senior high school.



Districts


These terms may not appear in a district's name, even though the condition may apply.



  • A unified school district includes elementary and secondary (middle school and high school) educational levels.

  • The word central in a district's name indicates that the district is formed from a consolidation ("centralization") of multiple districts and that the central district's operations are centralized relative to those of the previous districts.[7]

  • The word free in a district's name indicates that no tuition is charged to attend district schools. In New York, it is used in conjunction with union to indicate a district composed of multiple, formerly independent common school districts now free of restrictions placed on New York State's common school districts.

  • The word union or consolidated in a district's name indicates that it was formed from two or more districts.
    • In Missouri, most district names include a C- (for "consolidated") or, more commonly, an R- (for "reorganized") followed by a number, commonly in Roman numerals.[8]


  • The word joint in a district's name indicates that it includes territory from more than one county. By extension, a joint state school district, such as Union County–College Corner JSD, includes territory in more than one state.

  • The word independent can have different meanings, depending on the state.


    • Kentucky — Under Kentucky Revised Statutes § 160.020, an "Independent" district is defined as one whose jurisdiction does not cover an entire county.[9] If a county has no independent district, its school district boundaries coincide exactly with its borders.[10] Since 2013, the state has 53 independent districts scattered throughout the state, with major concentrations in Northern Kentucky and the Eastern Coalfield region. These districts are generally associated with a city, or sometimes with a cluster of adjoining cities. Unlike county districts, independent districts can cross county lines, as in the Caverna Independent School District centered on Cave City and Horse Cave and the Corbin Independent Schools. Note that some districts in the state are independent despite not having "Independent" in their official name, as in the Owensboro Public Schools and Paducah Public Schools.


    • Minnesota — Per Minnesota Statute 120A.05, "Independent" denotes any school district validly created and existing as an independent, consolidated, joint independent, county or a ten or more township district as of July 1, 1957, or pursuant to the Education Code.[11]


    • Texas — Here, "Independent" denotes that the district is separate from any county- or municipal-level entity. All of the state's school districts, with only one exception (Stafford Municipal School District), are independent of any municipal or county control. Moreover, school district boundaries rarely coincide with municipal limits or county lines. Most districts use the term "Independent School District" in their name; in the few cases where the term "Common School District" is used the district is still an independent governmental entity.



  • In Ohio, school districts are classified as either city school districts, exempted village school districts, or local school districts. City and exempted village school districts are exempted from county boards of education, while local school districts remain under county school board supervision. School districts may combine resources to form a fourth type of school district, the joint vocational school district, which focuses on a technical skills–based curriculum.[12]

  • In Michigan there are intermediate school districts (ISD), regional education service districts (RESD), or regional education service agencies (RESA), largely at the county level. The local schools districts run the schools and most programs, but often bilingual aides, programs for the deaf and blind, special education for the severely impaired, and career and technical education programs are run by the intermediate school district or equivalent.

  • In Maryland school districts are broken up by county.



Teacher assignment practices in school districts

There are various approaches can when making decisions in assigning teachers. The deciding in assigning teachers can occur with the collaboration of human resource staff or decisions from the collaboration with principals and teachers.[13] Although the decisions for teacher assignment can vary base on school districts, there are two most popular approaches that are currently occurring in assigning teachers. The first popular approach is assigning students to teachers based on sharing the same characteristics as their students.[14] For instance, principals assign teachers to students based on academic performance, teachers’ personalities, teachers teaching styles, and teachers’ classroom management skills. During this assignment practices, there are some collaboration with teachers and principals. The second most popular approach is that teachers can be assigned based on their ability to improve students’ standardized test scores. This is identified as “staffing to the test”[15] in which principals observe the influence teachers have on students’ standardized test scores and then strategically move teachers to certain subjects or grades where standardized test are given.[15]


Even though two approaches are used to assign teachers to students, there are some obstacles that principals encounter when making teacher assignment decisions. For instance, one conflict is parents demand that their child be assigned to a specific teacher.[16] The second conflict is that principals need to take into consideration policies, such as tenure or collective bargaining, which can influence teacher assignment practices.[17] Due to these challenges, many have suggested that principals should collaborate with teacher unions in order to address these conflicts.[17][18]



Europe


Outside the United States, autonomous districts or equivalent authorities often represent various groups seeking education autonomy. In European history, as in much of the world, religious (confessional), linguistic, and ethnic divisions have been a significant factor in school organization. This paradigm is shifting.[how?]


In England and Wales, school boards were established in 1870, and abolished in 1902, with county council and county borough councils becoming the local education authorities.[19]


In France, the system of the carte scolaire was dismantled by the beginning of the 2007 school year. More school choice has been given to French students; however, priority is given to those who meet the following criteria:



  • students with disabilities

  • students on scholarships or special academic merit

  • students who meet "social cohesion" criteria (essentially to diversify the school population)

  • students who require specialized medical attention from a hospital

  • students who want to study a course offered only by the school

  • students who have siblings that attend the school

  • students who live close to the school


In Germany, schools are run and funded by the general regional entities, usually the States of Germany or municipalities. School districts in the meaning of distinct legal entities do not exist.


In Italy, school districts were established in 1974 by the "Provvedimenti Delegati sulla scuola" ("Assigned Laws [to the Government] about the school").[20] Each district must contain a minimum of 10,000 inhabitants. The national government attempted to link the local schools with local society and culture and local governments. The school districts were dissolved in 2003 by the "legge finanziaria" (law about the government budget) in an attempt to trim the national budget.[21]



Examples



  • London School Board

  • Education areas in New South Wales, Australia

  • School districts in Canada

  • Education districts in Queensland, Australia



See also




  • Lists of school districts in the United States

  • List of the largest school districts in the United States by enrollment

  • State education agency

  • School division (Virginia)

  • Unified school district

  • School district drug policies

  • School Improvement Grant

  • School Catchment area



References





  1. ^ "School Districts" (Archive) U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved on June 20, 2015.


  2. ^ ab "State and Local Government Special Studies: Governments in the United States 1951." Property Taxation 1941. U.S. Census Bureau. G-SS-No. 29, March 1952. p. 2 (Google Books RA3-PA56).


  3. ^ "Local Government Handbook, 6th Edition" (PDF). New York Department of State, Division of Local Government Services. Published 2009; reprinted 2011. p. 75. Retrieved 31 August 2018. Check date values in: |date= (help).mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}


  4. ^ "State and Local Government Special Studies: Governments in the United States 1951." Property Taxation 1941. U.S. Census Bureau. G-SS-No. 29, March 1952. p. 1-2 (Google Books RA3-PA55 and PA56).


  5. ^ Barnhardt, Carol. "Historical Status of Elementary Schools in Rural Alaskan Communities 1867-1980." Alaska Native Knowledge Network (ANKN), University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on March 13, 2017.


  6. ^ USA Today published March 13, 2012, page A1,"Property taxes start to decline"


  7. ^ Niskayuna Central School District: District History


  8. ^ "Answer Man: What's 'R' mean in school district names?". Retrieved 10 Mar 2017.


  9. ^ Kentucky Revised Statutes § 160.020.


  10. ^ Kentucky Revised Statutes § 160.010.


  11. ^ "120A.05 - 2014 Minnesota Statutes". mn.gov. Retrieved 27 July 2015.


  12. ^ Special Purpose Governments, Ohio State University. Accessed 2008-01-05.


  13. ^ Monk, D. H. (1987). "Assigning elementary pupils to their teachers.". The Elementary School Journal. 88(2): 166–187.


  14. ^ Kraemer, S., Worth, R., & Meyer, R. H. (2011, April). Classroom assignment practices in urban school districts using teacher level value-added systems. In Association for Education Finance and Policy Annual Conference.


  15. ^ ab Cohen-Vogel, L. (2011). “Staffing to the test” are today’s school personnel practices evidence based? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33(4), 483-505. doi: 10.3102/0162373711419845.


  16. ^ Clotfelter, C.T., Ladd, H.F., & Vigdor, J. (2005). Who teaches whom? Race and the distribution of novice teachers. Economics of Education Review, 24(4), 377-392. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2004.06.008


  17. ^ ab Youngs, P., Pogodzinski, B., & Galey, S. (2015). How Labor Management Relations and Human Resource Policies Affect the Process of Teacher Assignment in Urban School Districts. Educational Administration Quarterly, 51(2), 214-246. doi: 10.1177/0013161X14529148


  18. ^ Useem, E., & Farley, E. (2004). Philadelphia’s teacher hiring and school assignment practices: Comparisons with other districts. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED485310.pdf Youngs, P., Pogodzinski, B., & Galey, S. (2015). How Labor Management Relations and Human Resource Policies Affect the Process of Teacher Assignment in Urban School Districts. Educational


  19. ^ "Find archives & local records". powys.gov.uk. Retrieved 27 July 2015.


  20. ^ "Text of the DPR n° 416 del 31 maggio 1974 ("Assigned Laws about the school")" (in Italian). 1994 [31 May 1974]. Retrieved 2016-03-30.


  21. ^ "L 289/2002: Text of the law n° 289 del 27 dicembre 2002 ("legge finanziaria 2003")" (in Italian). 2003 [27 Dec 2002]. Retrieved 2016-03-30.




Further reading



  • Yan, Wenfan (Indiana University of Pennsylvania). "A Comparison of Rural School Districts" (Archive). The Center for Rural Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania General Assembly. September 2006.

  • "How Small Is Too Small? An Analysis of School District Consolidation" (Archive). Legislative Analyst's Office (LAO) (Fiscal and policy advisor of the California Legislature). May 2, 2011.



External links



  • 2002 Census of Governments

  • U.S. School Districts Online









Comments

Post a Comment

Popular posts from this blog

Information security

Image
This article is part of a series on Information security Related security categories Internet security Cyberwarfare Computer security Mobile security Network security Threats Computer crime Vulnerability Eavesdropping Malware Spyware Ransomware Trojans Viruses Worms Rootkits Bootkits Keyloggers Screen scrapers Exploits Backdoors Logic bombs Payloads Denial of service Defenses Computer access control Application security Antivirus software Secure coding Secure by default Secure by design Secure operating systems Authentication Multi-factor authentication Authorization Data-centric security Encryption Firewall Intrusion detection system Mobile secure gateway Runtime application self-protection (RASP) v t e Information security , sometimes shortened to InfoSec , is the practice of preventing unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, inspection, recording or destruction of information. Th...
Read more

Lambak Kiri

Image
For Lambak Kiri public housing area, see Lambak Kiri Landless Indigenous Citizens' Housing Scheme. Village in Brunei-Muara, Brunei Lambak Kiri Village Location in Brunei Coordinates: 4°59′26″N 114°57′04″E  /  4.990472°N 114.951114°E  / 4.990472; 114.951114 Coordinates: 4°59′26″N 114°57′04″E  /  4.990472°N 114.951114°E  / 4.990472; 114.951114 Country Brunei District Brunei-Muara Mukim Berakas A Government  • Village head Hamdani Omar Postcode BB1214 Lambak Kiri is a populated place in Brunei-Muara District, Brunei. It is officially a village subdivision under Berakas A, a mukim in the district. Lambak Kiri may also refer to the greater area which includes the Lambak Kiri public housing area of the Landless Indigenous Citizens' Housing Scheme (Malay: Skim Tanah Kurnia Rakyat Jati ), although the latter is a separate subdivision. Contents 1 Name 2 Administration 3 See also 4 References Name ...
Read more

章鱼与海女图

Image
本条目 可参照英語維基百科相應條目来扩充 。 （2014/5/25） 若您熟悉来源语言和主题，请协助参考外语维基扩充条目。请勿直接提交机械翻译，也不要翻译不可靠、低品质内容。依版权协议，译文需在编辑摘要注明来源，或于讨论页顶部标记 {{Translated page}} 标签。 本条目 需要擴充。 （2013年8月15日） 请協助改善这篇條目，更進一步的信息可能會在討論頁或扩充请求中找到。请在擴充條目後將此模板移除。 《 章鱼与海女 》（日语： 蛸と海女 ／ たことあま   Tako to ama ）是一幅由日本畫家葛饰北斋创作的浮世绘，出自1814年（文化4年）出版的艳本《喜能会之故真通》（日语： 喜能会之故真通 ／ きのえのこまつ   Kinoe no Komatsu ）。畫中有兩隻章鱼以觸手攻擊一名採珠的海女，並進行擬似戀獸癖的交媾行為。作品尺寸为6½" × 8¾" （16.51 cm × 22.23 cm）。 [1] 在此之前的类似作品还有北尾重政的艳本《謡曲色番組》及勝川春潮的艳本《艳本千夜多女志》等，有被北斋作为参考的可能性。 《章鱼与海女图》有不同英文翻译，一般称The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife，又作Girl Diver and Octopi、Diver and Two Octopi，Richard Douglas Lane称其为 Girl Diver and Octopi [2] ，Mathi Forrer 称其为 Pearl Diver and Two Octopi [3] ，Danielle Talerico 称其为 Diver and Two Octopi 。 [4] 目录 1 作品介绍 1.1 画中对话 1.2 解释 2 评价 3 影响 3.1 模仿作品 4 另见 5 参考来源 6 外部連結 作品介绍 画中对话 原文 译文 大蛸： いつぞハいつぞハとねらいすましてゐたかいがあつて、けふといふけふ、とうとうとらまへたア。てもむつくりとしたいいぼぼだ。いもよりハなをこうぶつだ。サアサア、すつてすつてすいつくして...
Read more