Ryukyu Kingdom

Ryukyu Kingdom 琉球國
1429–1879
Royal Standard Royal Crest
Anthem: 石なぐの歌
Status	Tributary state of the Ming dynasty (1429–1644) Tributary state of the Qing dynasty (1644-1875) Vassal state of Satsuma Domain (1609–1872) Vassal state of the Empire of Japan (1872–1879)
Capital	Shuri
Common languages	Ryukyuan (native languages), Classical Chinese, Classical Japanese
Religion	native Ryukyuan religion, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism
Government	Monarchy
King (國王)
• 1429–1439	Shō Hashi
• 1477–1526	Shō Shin
• 1587–1620	Shō Nei
• 1848–1879	Shō Tai
Sessei (摂政)
• 1666–1673	Shō Shōken
Regent (國師, Kokushi)
• 1751–1752	Sai On
Legislature	Shuri cabinet (首里王府), Sanshikan (三司官)
History
• Unification	1429
• Satsuma invasion	April 5, 1609
• Reorganized into Ryukyu Domain	1875
• Annexed by Japan	March 27 1879
Area
2,271 km2 (877 sq mi)
Currency	Ryukyuan, Chinese, and Japanese mon coins[1]
Preceded by Succeeded by Hokuzan Chūzan Nanzan Empire of Japan Satsuma Domain Ryukyu Domain
Today part of	Japan

The Ryukyu Kingdom (Okinawan: 琉球國 Ruuchuu-kuku; Japanese: 琉球王国 Ryūkyū Ōkoku; Middle Chinese: Ljuw-gjuw kwok; historical English name: Lewchew, Luchu, and Loochoo) was an independent kingdom that ruled most of the Ryukyu Islands from the 15th to the 19th century.^{[note 1]} The kings of Ryukyu unified Okinawa Island and extended the kingdom to the Amami Islands in modern-day Kagoshima Prefecture, and the Sakishima Islands near Taiwan. Despite its small size, the kingdom played a central role in the maritime trade networks of medieval East and Southeast Asia, especially the Malacca Sultanate.

Contents

• 
  1 History
  
  
  
  • 
    1.1 Origins of the Kingdom
    
  
  
  • 
    1.2 Golden age of maritime trade
    
  
  
  • 
    1.3 Japanese invasion and subordination
    
  
  
  • 
    1.4 Tributary relations
    
  
  
  • 
    1.5 Annexation by the Japanese Empire
    
  
  
  
  


• 
  2 Major events
  


• 
  3 List of Ryukyuan kings
  


• 
  4 In popular culture
  


• 
  5 See also
  


• 
  6 Notes
  


• 
  7 References
  
  
  
  • 
    7.1 Citations
    
  
  
  • 
    7.2 Sources
    
  
  
  
  


• 
  8 External links
  

History

See also: History of the Ryukyu Islands

Origins of the Kingdom

Royal seal of the Ryukyu Kingdom (首里之印)

In the 14th century, small domains scattered on Okinawa Island were unified into three principalities: Hokuzan (北山, Northern Mountain), Chūzan (中山, Central Mountain), and Nanzan (南山, Southern Mountain). This was known as the Three Kingdoms, or Sanzan (三山, Three Mountains) period.^{[citation needed]} Hokuzan, which constituted much of the northern half of the island, was the largest in terms of land area and military strength but was economically the weakest of the three. Nanzan constituted the southern portion of the island. Chūzan lay in the center of the island and was economically the strongest. Its political capital at Shuri, Nanzan was adjacent to the major port of Naha, and Kume-mura, the center of traditional Chinese education. These sites and Chūzan as a whole would continue to form the center of the Ryukyu Kingdom until its abolition.^{[citation needed]}

Many Chinese people moved to Ryukyu to serve the government or to engage in business during this period^{[citation needed]}. At the request of the Ryukyuan King, the Ming Chinese sent 36 Chinese families from Fujian to manage oceanic dealings in the kingdom in 1392, during the Hongwu emperor's reign. Many Ryukyuan officials were descended from these Chinese immigrants, being born in China or having Chinese grandfathers.^[2] They assisted the Ryukyuans in advancing their technology and diplomatic relations.^[3][4][5] On 30 January 1406, Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs to serve in the Ming imperial palace. Yongle Emperor said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and did not deserve castration, and Yongle Emperor returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again. According to statements by Qing imperial official Li Hongzhang in a meeting with Ulysses S. Grant, China had a special relationship with the island and the Ryukyu had paid tribute to China for hundreds of years, and the Chinese reserved certain trade rights for them in an amicable and beneficial relationship.^[6]

These three principalities (tribal federations led by major chieftains) battled, and Chūzan emerged victorious. The Chūzan leaders were officially recognized by Ming dynasty China as the rightful kings over those of Nanzan and Hokuzan, thus lending great legitimacy to their claims. The ruler of Chūzan passed his throne to King Hashi; Hashi conquered Hokuzan in 1416 and Nanzan in 1429, uniting the island of Okinawa for the first time, and founded the first Shō Dynasty. Hashi received the surname "Shō" (Chinese: "Shang") 尚 from the Ming emperor in 1421, becoming known as Shō Hashi (Chinese: Shang Bazhi) 尚巴志.^{[citation needed]}

Shō Hashi adopted the Chinese hierarchical court system, built Shuri Castle and the town as his capital, and constructed Naha harbor. When in 1469 King Shō Toku, who was a grandson of Shō Hashi, died without a male heir, a palatine servant declared he was Toku's adopted son and gained Chinese investiture. This pretender, Shō En, began the Second Shō Dynasty. Ryukyu's golden age occurred during the reign of Shō Shin, the second king of that dynasty, who reigned from 1478 to 1526.^{[citation needed]}

The kingdom extended its authority over the southernmost islands in the Ryukyu archipelago by the end of the 15th century, and by 1571 the Amami Ōshima Islands, to the north near Kyūshū, were incorporated into the kingdom as well.^[7] While the kingdom's political system was adopted and the authority of Shuri recognized, in the Amami Ōshima Islands, the kingdom's authority over the Sakishima Islands to the south remained for centuries at the level of a tributary-suzerain relationship.^[8]

Golden age of maritime trade

For nearly two hundred years, the Ryukyu Kingdom would thrive as a key player in maritime trade with Southeast and East Asia.^[9][10] Central to the kingdom's maritime activities was the continuation of the tributary relationship with Ming dynasty China, begun by Chūzan in 1372,^{[7][note 2]} and enjoyed by the three Okinawan kingdoms which followed it. China provided ships for Ryukyu's maritime trade activities,^[11] allowed a limited number of Ryukyuans to study at the Imperial Academy in Beijing, and formally recognized the authority of the King of Chūzan, allowing the kingdom to trade formally at Ming ports. Ryukyuan ships, often provided by China, traded at ports throughout the region, which included, among others, China, Đại Việt (Vietnam), Japan, Java, Korea, Luzon, Malacca, Pattani, Palembang, Siam, and Sumatra.^[12]

Seal from Qing China giving authority to the King of Ryukyu to rule

The main building (Seidan) of Shuri Castle

Japanese products—silver, swords, fans, lacquerware, folding screens—and Chinese products—medicinal herbs, minted coins, glazed ceramics, brocades, textiles—were traded within the kingdom for Southeast Asian sappanwood, rhino horn, tin, sugar, iron, ambergris, Indian ivory, and Arabian frankincense. Altogether, 150 voyages between the kingdom and Southeast Asia on Ryukyuan ships were recorded in the Rekidai Hōan, an official record of diplomatic documents compiled by the kingdom, as having taken place between 1424 and the 1630s, with 61 of them bound for Siam, 10 for Malacca, 10 for Pattani, and 8 for Java, among others.^[12]

The Chinese policy of haijin (海禁, "sea bans"), limiting trade with China to tributary states and those with formal authorization, along with the accompanying preferential treatment of the Ming Court towards Ryukyu, allowed the kingdom to flourish and prosper for roughly 150 years.^[13] In the late 16th century, however, the kingdom's commercial prosperity fell into decline. The rise of the wokou ("Japanese pirate") threat among other factors led to the gradual loss of Chinese preferential treatment;^[14] the kingdom also suffered from increased maritime competition from Portuguese traders.^[7]

Japanese invasion and subordination

Main article: Invasion of Ryukyu

Around 1590, Toyotomi Hideyoshi asked the Ryukyu Kingdom to aid in his campaign to conquer Korea. If successful, Hideyoshi intended to then move against China. As the Ryukyu Kingdom was a tributary state of the Ming dynasty, the request was refused. The Tokugawa shogunate that emerged following Hideyoshi's fall authorized the Shimazu family—feudal lords of the Satsuma domain (present-day Kagoshima Prefecture)—to send an expeditionary force to conquer the Ryukyus. The subsequent invasion took place in 1609.^[7] Occupation occurred fairly quickly, with some fierce fighting, and King Shō Nei was taken prisoner to Kagoshima and later to Edo (modern-day Tokyo). When he was released two years later, the Ryukyu Kingdom regained a degree of autonomy; however, the Satsuma domain seized control over some territory of the Ryukyu Kingdom, notably the Amami-Ōshima island group, which was incorporated into the Satsuma domain and remains a part of Kagoshima prefecture, not Okinawa prefecture, to this day.

The kingdom was described by Hayashi Shihei in Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu, which was published in 1785.^[15]

Tributary relations

A Ryukyuan embassy in Edo, Japan.

Traditional Ryukyuan clothes

The Ryukyu Kingdom found itself in a period of "dual subordination" to Japan and China, wherein Ryukyuan tributary relations were maintained with both the Tokugawa shogunate and the Ming Chinese court. In 1655, tribute relations between Ryukyu and Qing dynasty (the dynasty that followed Ming in 1644) were formally approved by the shogunate. This was seen to be justified, in part, because of the desire to avoid giving Qing any reason for military action against Japan.^[16]

Since Ming China prohibited trade with Japan, the Satsuma domain, with the blessing of the Tokugawa shogunate, used the trade relations of the kingdom to continue to maintain trade relations with China. Considering that Japan had previously severed ties with most European countries except the Dutch, such trade relations proved especially crucial to both the Tokugawa shogunate and Satsuma domain, which would use its power and influence, gained in this way, to help overthrow the shogunate in the 1860s.^{[citation needed]}

The Ryukyuan king was a vassal of the Satsuma daimyō, but his land was not considered as part of any han (fief): up until the formal annexation of the islands and abolition of the kingdom in 1879, the Ryukyus were not truly considered part of Japan, and the Ryukyuan people were not considered to be Japanese.^{[citation needed]} Though technically under the control of Satsuma, Ryukyu was given a great degree of autonomy, to best serve the interests of the Satsuma daimyō and those of the shogunate, in trading with China. Ryukyu was a tributary state of China, and since Japan had no formal diplomatic relations with China, it was essential that China not realize that Ryukyu was controlled by Japan. Thus, Satsuma—and the shogunate—was obliged to be mostly hands-off in terms of not visibly or forcibly occupying Ryukyu or controlling the policies and laws there. The situation benefited all three parties involved—the Ryukyu royal government, the Satsuma daimyō, and the shogunate—to make Ryukyu seem as much a distinctive and foreign country as possible. Japanese were prohibited from visiting Ryukyu without shogunal permission, and the Ryukyuans were forbidden from adopting Japanese names, clothes, or customs. They were even forbidden from divulging their knowledge of the Japanese language during their trips to Edo; the Shimazu family, daimyōs of Satsuma, gained great prestige by putting on a show of parading the King, officials, and other people of Ryukyu to and through Edo. As the only han to have a king and an entire kingdom as vassals, Satsuma gained significantly from Ryukyu's exoticness, reinforcing that it was an entirely separate kingdom.^{[citation needed]}

Japan ordered tributary relations to end in 1875 after the tribute mission of 1874 was perceived as a show of submission to China.^[17]

Annexation by the Japanese Empire

In 1872, Emperor Meiji unilaterally declared that the kingdom was then Ryukyu Domain.^[18][19][20] At the same time, the fiction of independence was maintained for diplomatic reasons^[21] until the Meiji Japanese government abolished the Ryukyu Kingdom when the islands were incorporated as Okinawa Prefecture on 27 March 1879.^[22] The Amami-Ōshima island group which had been integrated into Satsuma Domain became a part of Kagoshima Prefecture.

The last king of Ryukyu was forced to relocate to Tokyo, and was given a compensating kazoku rank as Marquis Shō Tai.^{[23][24][page needed]} His death in 1901 diminished the historic connections with the former kingdom.^[25] The Sho family now lives normally in Japan.^[26] Many royalists fled to China.^[27] Nowadays, the Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport still uses the Chinese characters Ryukyu (Okinawa) as its destination, although the English is Okinawa (OKA).

Major events

• 1187 – Shunten becomes King of Okinawa, based at Urasoe Castle.


• 1272 – Envoys from the Mongol Empire are expelled from Okinawa by King Eiso.


• 1276 – Mongols are violently driven off the island again.


• 1372 – The first Ming dynasty envoy visits Okinawa, which had been divided into three kingdoms during the Sanzan period. Formal tributary relations with the Chinese Empire begin.^[7]
  


• 1416 – Chūzan, led by Shō Hashi, occupies Nakijin Castle, capital of Hokuzan.^[28]
  


• 1429 – Chūzan occupies Nanzan Castle, capital of Nanzan, unifying Okinawa Island. Shō Hashi moves the capital to Shuri Castle (now part of modern-day Naha).^[28]
  


• 1458 – Amawari's rebellion against the Kingdom.


• 1466 – Kikai Island invaded by Ryukyu.


• 1470 – Shō En (Kanemaru) establishes the Second Shō Dynasty.^[28]
  


• 1477 – Shō Shin, whose rule is called the "Great Days of Chūzan", ascends to the throne.^[28] Golden age of the kingdom.


• 1500 – Sakishima Islands annexed by Ryukyu.


• 1609 – (April 5) Daimyō (Lord) of Satsuma in southern Kyūshū invades the kingdom. King Shō Nei is captured.^[28]
  


• 1611 – In accordance with the peace treaty, Satsuma annexes the Amami and Tokara Islands; Kings of Ryukyu become vassals to the Lords of Satsuma.


• 1623 – Completion of Omoro Sōshi.


• 1650 – Completion of Chūzan Seikan.


• 1724 – Completion of Chūzan Seifu.


• 1745 – Completion of Kyūyō.


• 1846 – Dr. Bernard Jean Bettelheim (d. 1870), a British Protestant missionary serving with the Loochoo Naval Mission, arrives in Ryukyu Kingdom.^[28] He establishes the first foreign hospital on the island at the Naminoue Gokoku-ji Temple.


• 1852 – Commodore Matthew C. Perry of the US Navy visits the kingdom and establishes a coaling station in Naha.^[28]
  


• 1854 – Perry returns to Okinawa to sign the Loochoo Compact with the Ryukyuan government; Bettelheim leaves with Perry.


• 1866 – The last official mission from the Qing Empire visits the kingdom.


• 1872 – Emperor Meiji unilaterally declares King Shō Tai as the "Domain Head of Ryukyu Domain".


• 1874 – The last tributary envoy to China is dispatched from Naha. / Kaiser Wilhelm I erects a "friendship monument" on Miyako Island. / Japan invades Taiwan on behalf of Ryukyu.


• 1879 – Japan abolishes Ryukyu Domain and declares the creation of Okinawa Prefecture, formally annexing the islands.^[28] Shō Tai is forced to abdicate, but is granted the rank of marquis (侯爵, kōshaku) within the Meiji peerage system.^[23]
  

List of Ryukyuan kings

For a more comprehensive list, see List of monarchs of Ryukyu Islands and Genealogy of the Shō Dynasties.

Kings of Ryukyu Islands

Name	Chinese characters	Reign	Line or Dynasty	Notes
Shunten	舜天	1187–37	Tenson Lineage
Shunbajunki	舜馬順熈	1238–48	Tenson Lineage
Gihon	義本	1249–59	Tenson Lineage
Eiso	英祖	1260–99	Eiso Lineage
Taisei	大成	1300–08	Eiso Lineage
Eiji	英慈	1309–13	Eiso Lineage

Kings of Chūzan

Tamagusuku	玉城	1314–36	Eiso Lineage
Seii	西威	1337–54	Eiso Lineage
Satto	察度	1355–97	Satto Lineage
Bunei	武寧	1398–1406	Satto Lineage
Shō Shishō	尚思紹	1407–21	First Shō Dynasty
Shō Hashi	尚巴志	1422–29	First Shō Dynasty	as King of Chūzan

Kings of Ryukyu

Name	Chinese characters	Reign	Line or Dynasty	Notes
Shō Hashi	尚巴志	1429–39	First Shō Dynasty	as King of Ryukyu
Shō Chū	尚忠	1440–42	First Shō Dynasty
Shō Shitatsu	尚思達	1443–49	First Shō Dynasty
Shō Kinpuku	尚金福	1450–53	First Shō Dynasty
Shō Taikyū	尚泰久	1454–60	First Shō Dynasty
Shō Toku	尚徳	1461–69	First Shō Dynasty
Shō En	尚円	1470–76	Second Shō Dynasty	AKA Kanemaru Uchima
Shō Sen'i	尚宣威	1477	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Shin	尚真	1477–1526	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Sei	尚清	1527–55	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Gen	尚元	1556–72	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Ei	尚永	1573–86	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Nei	尚寧	1587–1620	Second Shō Dynasty	ruled during Satsuma invasion; first king to be Satsuma vassal
Shō Hō	尚豊	1621–40	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Ken	尚賢	1641–47	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Shitsu	尚質	1648–68	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Tei	尚貞	1669–1709	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Eki	尚益	1710–12	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Kei	尚敬	1713–51	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Boku	尚穆	1752–95	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō On	尚温	1796–1802	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Sei (r. 1803)	尚成	1803	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Kō	尚灝	1804–28	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Iku	尚育	1829–47	Second Shō Dynasty
Shō Tai	尚泰	1848 – March 11, 1879	Second Shō Dynasty	last King of Ryukyu (then Japanese Marquis 1884–1901)

In popular culture

In the videogame Europa Universalis IV there is an achievement called The Three Mountains, which is achieved by conquering the world as the Ryukyu Kingdom. It is considered to be one of the hardest in-game achievements, thought to be an impossible one for a long time, due to Ryukyu's limited resources and isolation.

See also

• 
  Ryukyu portal
  

Location of the Ryukyu Islands

Hokuzan, Chūzan, Nanzan

• Foreign relations of Imperial China


• Gusuku


• History of the Ryukyu Islands


• History of Sakishima Islands


• Hua–Yi distinction


• Mudan Incident of 1871


• Ryukyu independence movement


• Ryukyu Islands


• Ryukyuan missions to Edo


• Ryukyuan missions to Imperial China


• 
  Ryukyuan missions to Joseon
  
  
  
  • Joseon missions to Ryukyu Kingdom
  
  
  • Imperial Chinese missions to Ryukyu Kingdom
  
  
  
  


• 
  Tamaudun (intact royal tombs)


• Okinawan martial arts

Notes

1. 
   ^ Although the Ryukyuan king was a vassal of the Satsuma Domain, the Ryukyu Kingdom was not considered part of any Han due to trade relations with China.
   


2. 
   ^ Nanzan and Hokuzan also entered into tributary relationships with Ming China, in 1380 and 1383 respectively.^[11]
   

References

Citations

1. 
   ^ "Ryuukyuuan coins". Luke Roberts at the Department of History – University of California at Santa Barbara. 24 October 2003. Retrieved 1 June 2017..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
   


2. 
   ^ Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-7914-2687-4. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
   


3. 
   ^ Schottenhammer, Angela (2007). Schottenhammer, Angela, ed. The East Asian maritime world 1400–1800: its fabrics of power and dynamics of exchanges. Volume 4 of East Asian economic and socio-cultural studies: East Asian maritime history (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz. p. xiii. ISBN 3-447-05474-3. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
   


4. 
   ^ Deng, Gang (1999). Maritime sector, institutions, and sea power of premodern China. Contributions in economics and economic history. 212 (illustrated ed.). Greenwood. p. 125. ISBN 0-313-30712-1. Retrieved 2011-02-04.
   


5. 
   ^ Hendrickx, Katrien (2007). The Origins of Banana-fibre Cloth in the Ryukyus, Japan (illustrated ed.). Leuven University Press. p. 39. ISBN 90-5867-614-5. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
   


6. 
   ^ Grant, Ulysses Simpson (2008). Simon, John Y, ed. The Papers. 29: October 1, 1878 – September 30, 1880 (illustrated ed.). SIU Press, Ulysses S. Grant Association. p. 165. ISBN 0-8093-2775-9. Retrieved 2011-01-11.
   


7. 
   ^ ^abcde Matsuda 2001, p. 16.
   


8. 
   ^ Murai 2008, pp. iv–v.
   


9. 
   ^ Okamoto 2008, p. 35.
   


10. 
    ^ Okinawa Prefectural reserve cultural assets center (2012). "東南アジアと琉球". Comprehensive Database of Archaeological Site Reports in Japan. Retrieved 2016-09-02.
    


11. 
    ^ ^ab Okamoto 2008, p. 36.
    


12. 
    ^ ^ab Sakamaki, Shunzō (1964). "Ryukyu and Southeast Asia". Journal of Asian Studies. 23 (3): 382–384. doi:10.2307/2050757.
    


13. 
    ^ Murai 2008, p. iv.
    


14. 
    ^ Okamoto 2008, p. 53.
    


15. 
    ^ Klaproth, Julius (1832), San kokf tsou ran to sets, ou Aperçu général des trois royaumes [San kokf tsou ran to sets, or General overview of the three kingdoms] (in French), pp. 169–180.
    


16. 
    ^ Kang 2010, p. 81.
    


17. 
    ^ Kerr 1953, p. 366-367.
    


18. 
    ^ Matsuo, Kanenori Sakon (2005). The Secret Royal Martial Arts of Ryukyu, p. 40, at Google Books.
    


19. 
    ^ Kerr 1953, p. 175.
    


20. 
    ^ Lin, Man-houng. "The Ryukyus and Taiwan in the East Asian Seas: A Longue Durée Perspective", Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. October 27, 2006, translated and abridged from Academia Sinica Weekly, No. 1084. August 24, 2006.
    


21. 
    ^ Goodenough, Ward H. Book Review: "George H. Kerr. Okinawa: the History of an Island People...", The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, May 1959, Vol. 323, No. 1, p. 165.
    


22. 
    ^ Kerr 1953, p. 381.
    


23. 
    ^ ^ab Papinot, Jacques Edmond Joseph (2003), "Sho", Nobiliare du Japon [Nobility of Japan] (PDF@60) (in French), p. 56.
    


24. 
    ^ Papinot, Jacques Edmond Joseph (1906), Dictionnaire d’histoire et de géographie du Japon [Dictionary of History & Geography of Japan] (in French).
    


25. 
    ^ Kerr 1953, p. 236.
    


26. 
    ^ "Forgotten Dynasty".
    


27. 
    ^ 论战后琉球独立运动及琉球归属问题- 百度文库
    


28. 
    ^ ^abcdefgh Hamashita, Takeshi. Okinawa Nyūmon (沖縄入門, "Introduction to Okinawa"). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobō, 2000, pp. 207–13.
    

Sources

• 
  Akamine, Mamoru (2016). The Ryukyu Kingdom: Cornerstone of East Asia. University of Hawaii. ISBN 0824855175.
  


• 
  Kang, David C (2010), East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-23115318-8, OCLC 562768984;
  ISBN 978-0-23152674-6.


• 
  Kerr, George H (1953), Ryukyu Kingdom and Province before 1945, Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, OCLC 5455582.


• 
  ——— (1958), Okinawa: the History of an Island People, Rutland, VT: Charles Tuttle Co, OCLC 722356.


• 
  Matsuda, Mitsugu (2001), 'The Government of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, 1609–1872 (dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Hawaii in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, January 1967), Gushikawa: Yui Pub., ISBN 4-946539-16-6, 283 pp.


• 
  Murai, Shōsuke (2008), "Introduction", Acta Asiatica, Tokyo: The Tōhō Gakkai (The Institute of Eastern Culture), 95.


• 
  Okamoto, Hiromichi (2008), "Foreign Policy and Maritime Trade in the Early Ming Period Focusing on the Ryukyu Kingdom", Acta Asiatica, 95.


• 
  Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric (2002), Japan Encyclopedia, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC 48943301.


• 
  Smits, Gregory (1999), Visions of Ryukyu: identity and ideology in early-modern thought and politics, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-8248-2037-1, 213 pp.

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ryukyu Kingdom (category)

• 
  Brief History of the Uchinanchu (Okinawans), Uninanchu.


• 
  Okinawa Filming Guide Book 2014–2015 (PDF), Okinawa Convention & Visitors Bureau (OCVBOkinawaFilmOffice)
  


• 
  Comprehensive Database of Archaeological Site Reports in Japan, Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties

Coordinates: 26°12′N 127°41′E / 26.200°N 127.683°E / 26.200; 127.683

v t e Ryukyuan monarchs
Shunten Dynasty	Shunten Shunbajunki Gihon
Eiso Dynasty	Eiso Taisei Eiji Tamagusuku Seii
Sanzan period	Chūzan Satto Bunei Nanzan Ofusato Oueishi Ououso Tafuchi Taromai Hokuzan Haniji Min Hananchi
First Shō Dynasty	Shō Shishō Shō Hashi Shō Chū Shō Shitatsu Shō Kinpuku Shō Taikyū Shō Toku
Second Shō Dynasty	Shō En Shō Sen'i Shō Shin Shō Sei Shō Gen Shō Ei Shō Nei Shō Hō Shō Ken Shō Shitsu Shō Tei Shō Eki Shō Kei Shō Boku Shō On Shō Sei Shō Kō Shō Iku Shō Tai
Genealogy of the Shō Dynasties Ryukyu Kingdom Ryukyu Domain History of the Ryukyu Islands

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