Mixing
Assamese language
| Assamese | |
|---|---|
| Asamiya (Ôxômiya) [1][2] | |
 The word Ôxômiya ('Assamese') in Assamese script | |
| Pronunciation | /ɔ.xɔ.mia/ |
| Native to | India |
| Region | Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland[3] |
| Ethnicity | Assamese people |
Native speakers | 15 million (2011 census)[4] |
Language family | Indo-European
|
| Dialects |
|
Writing system | Eastern Nagari (Assamese) Ahom script[5] (historical, rare) Assamese Braille |
| Official status | |
Official language in |  India (Assam) |
| Regulated by | Asam Sahitya Sabha (literature/rhetorical congress of Assam) |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | as |
| ISO 639-2 | asm |
| ISO 639-3 | asm |
| Glottolog | assa1263[6] |
| Linguasphere | 59-AAF-w |
Assamese (/ˌæsəˈmiːz/)[7] (also Asamiya)[8][9][10] is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Assam, where it is an official language. It is the easternmost Indo-European language; spoken by over 15 million speakers,[11] and serves as a lingua franca in the region.[12]
Nefamese is an Assamese-based pidgin used in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagamese, an Assamese-based Creole language is widely used in Nagaland. The Rajbangshi dialect of Rangpur division of Bangladesh and Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts of India are linguistically closer to Assamese, though the speakers identify with the Bengali culture and the literary language.[13] In the past, it was the court language of the Ahom kingdom from the 17th century.
Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Assamese evolved at least before 7th century CE[14] from the middle Indo-Aryan Magadhi Prakrit, which developed from dialects similar to, but in some ways more archaic than Vedic Sanskrit.[15]
Its sister languages include Angika, Bengali, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Chakma, Chittagonian, Hajong, Rajbangsi, Maithili, Rohingya and Sylheti. It is written in the Assamese script, an abugida system, from left to right, with a large number of typographic ligatures.
Contents
1 History
2 Geographical distribution
2.1 Official status
3 Phonology
3.1 Consonant clusters
3.2 Alveolar stops
3.3 Voiceless velar fricative
3.4 Velar nasal
3.5 Vowel inventory
4 Writing system
5 Morphology and grammar
5.1 Negativization process
5.2 Classifiers
5.3 Nominalization
5.4 Grammatical cases
5.5 Pronouns
5.6 Tense
5.7 Relationship suffixes
6 Dialects
6.1 Regional dialects
6.1.1 Comparison
6.2 Samples
6.3 Non-regional dialects
7 Literature
8 Sample text
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
History
The proto-languages of the eastern Magadhan languages. Kamarupa Prakrit corresponds to ?proto-Kamarupa here, a hitherto un-reconstructed proto-language. The period corresponds to 1250-1550 CE, when proto-Kamata began to innovate unique features.[16]
Silver coin issued during the reign of Rudra Singha with Assamese inscriptions.
Rô
One of the consonants of Assamese script.
Assamese originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, though the exact nature of its origin and growth is not clear yet.[17] It is generally believed that Assamese (Assam) and the Kamatapuri lects (Cooch Bihar and Assam) derive from the Kamarupi dialect of Eastern Magadhi Prakrit[18] by keeping to the north of the Ganges;[19] though some authors contest a close connection of Assamese with Magadhi Prakrit.[20] The Indo-Aryan language in Kamarupa had differentiated by the 7th-century, before it did in Bengal or Orissa.[21] These changes were likely due to non-Indo-Aryan speakers adopting the language.[22][23][24] The evidence of the newly differentiated language is found in the Prakritisms of the Kamarupa inscriptions.[25][26]
The earliest forms of Assamese in literature are found in the ninth-century Buddhist verses called Charyapada, and in 12-14th century works of Ramai Pundit (Sunya Puran), Boru Chandidas (Krishna Kirtan), Sukur Mamud (Gopichandrar Gan), Durllava Mullik (Gobindachandrar Git) and Bhavani Das (Mainamatir Gan). In these works, Assamese features coexist with features from other Modern Indian Languages.
A fully distinguished literary form (poetry) appeared first in the fourteenth century—in the courts of the Kamata kingdom and in the courts of an eastern Kachari king where Madhav Kandali translated the Ramayana into the Assamese (Saptakanda Ramayana). From the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, songs – Borgeets, dramas – Ankiya Naat and the first prose writings (by Bhattadeva) were composed. The literary language, based on the western dialects moved to the court of the Ahom kingdom in the seventeenth century,[27] where it became the state language. This period saw the widespread development of standardized prose infused with colloquial forms in Buranjis.
According to Goswami (2003), this included "the colloquial prose of religious biographies, the archaic prose of magical charms, the conventional prose of utilitarian literature on medicine, astrology, arithmetic, dance and music, and above all the standardized prose of the Buranjis.[28] The literary language, having become infused with the eastern idiom, became the standard literary form in the nineteenth century, when the British adopted it for state purposes. As the political and commercial center shifted to Guwahati after the mid-twentieth century, the literary form moved away from the eastern variety to take its current form.
Geographical distribution
Assamese is native to Brahmaputra Valley consisting of western and eastern Assam. It is also spoken in states of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Presence of Assamese script can be found in Rakhine state of present Myanmar. Pashupati temple in Nepal also have inscription in Assamese showing its influence and prosperity in the past. There are also significant Assamese-speaking communities in Australia,[29]Dubai,[30] the United Kingdom,[31]Canada, Nepal and the United States.[32]
Official status
Assamese is the official language of Assam, and one of the 23 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. The Assam Secretariat functions in Assamese.[33]
Phonology
The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of eight vowels, ten diphthongs, and twenty-three consonants (including two semivowels).[34]
Front | Central | Back | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | ROM | Script | IPA | ROM | Script | IPA | ROM | Script | |
Close | i | i | ই/ঈ | u | u | উ/ঊ | |||
Near-close | ʊ/o | ú/o' | ও | ||||||
Close-mid | e | é | এ’ | o | ó | অ’ | |||
Open-mid | ɛ | e | এ | ɔ | o | অ | |||
Open | a | a | আ | ||||||
a | i | u | |
|---|---|---|---|
ɔ | ɔi | ||
a | ai | au | |
i | iu | ||
u | ua | ui | |
e | ei | eu | |
o | oi | ou |
Labial | Alveolar | Dorsal | Glottal | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | ROM | Script | IPA | ROM | Script | IPA | ROM | Script | IPA | ROM | Script | ||
Nasal | m | m | ম | n | n | ন/ণ | ŋ | ng | ঙ/ং | ||||
Stop | voiceless | p | p | প | t | t | ত/ট | k | k | ক | |||
aspirated | pʰ | ph | ফ | tʰ | th | থ/ঠ | kʰ | kh | খ | ||||
voiced | b | b | ব | d | d | দ/ড | ɡ | g | গ | ||||
murmured | bʱ | bh | ভ | dʱ | dh | ধ/ঢ | ɡʱ | gh | ঘ | ||||
Fricative | voiceless | s | s | চ/ছ | x | x | শ/ষ/স | ɦ | h | হ | |||
voiced | z | z | জ/ঝ/য | ||||||||||
Approximant | central | w | w | ৱ | ɹ | r | ৰ | j | y | য়/্য (য) | |||
lateral | l | l | ল | ||||||||||
Consonant clusters
Consonant clusters in Assamese include thirty three pure consonant letters in the Assamese alphabet. Each letter represents a single sound with an inherent vowel, the short vowel /ɔ/.
The first twenty-five consonants letters are called "sparxa barna"[pronunciation?]. These "sparxa barnas" are again divided into five "bargs". Therefore, these twenty-five letters are also called "bargia barna".[clarification needed][verification needed]
Alveolar stops
The Assamese phoneme inventory is unique in the Indic group of languages in its lack of a dental-retroflex distinction among the coronal stops.[35] Historically, the dental and retroflex series merged into alveolar stops. This makes Assamese resemble non-Indic languages of Northeast India (such as Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan languages).[36] The only other language to have fronted retroflex stops into alveolars is the closely related eastern dialects of Bengali (although a contrast with dental stops remains in those dialects). Note that /r/ is normally realized as [ɹ] or as a retroflex approximant.
Voiceless velar fricative
Assamese and Sylheti are unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of the /x/ (which, phonetically, varies between velar ([x]) and a uvular ([χ]) pronunciations, depending on the speaker and speech register), historically the MIA sibilant has lenited to /x/ and /h/ (non-initially).[37] The derivation of the velar fricative from the coronal sibilant /s/ is evident in the name of the language in Assamese; some Assamese prefer to write ⟨Oxomiya⟩ or ⟨Ôxômiya⟩ instead of ⟨Asomiya⟩ or ⟨Asamiya⟩ to reflect the sound change.[38] The voiceless velar fricative is absent in the West Goalpariya dialects[39] though it is found in lesser extent in East Goalpariya and Kamrupi,[40] otherwise used extensively further east. The change of /s/ to /h/ and then to /x/; all these have been attributed to Tibeto-Burman influence by Dr. Chatterjee.[41]
Velar nasal
Assamese, Odia and Bengali, in contrast to other Indo-Aryan languages, use the velar nasal (the English ng in sing) extensively. In many languages, while the velar nasal is commonly restricted to preceding velar sounds, in Assamese it can occur intervocalically.[34] This is another feature it shares with other languages of Northeast India, though in Assamese the velar nasal never occurs word-initially.[42]
Vowel inventory
Eastern Indic languages like Assamese, Bengali, Sylheti, and Odia do not have a vowel length distinction, but have a wide set of back rounded vowels. In the case of Assamese, there are four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically, as demonstrated by the minimal set: কলা kôla [kɔla] ('deaf'), ক'লা kola [kola] ('black'), কোলা kûla [kʊla] ('lap'), and কুলা kula [kula] ('winnowing fan'). The near-close near-back rounded vowel /ʊ/ is unique in this branch of the language family. But in lower Assam, ও is pronounced same as অ' (o') which is also correct. কোলা kola [ko'la] মোৰ mor [mo'r]
Writing system
Modern Assamese uses the Assamese script, and in the medieval times the script came in three varieties: Bamuniya, Garhgaya, Kaitheli/Lakhari, which developed from the Kamarupi script. It very closely resembles the Mithilakshar script of the Maithili language, as well as the Bengali script.[43] There is a strong literary tradition from early times. Examples can be seen in edicts, land grants and copper plates of medieval kings. Assam had its own manuscript writing system on the bark of the saanchi tree in which religious texts and chronicles were written, as opposed to the pan-indian system of Palm leaf manuscript writing. The present-day spellings in Assamese are not necessarily phonetic. Hemkosh (হেমকোষ [ɦɛmkʊx]), the second Assamese dictionary, introduced spellings based on Sanskrit, which are now the standard.
Morphology and grammar
The Assamese language has the following characteristic morphological features:[44]
- Gender and number are not grammatically marked.
- There is lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.
- Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.
- The agentive case is overtly marked as distinct from the accusative.
- Kinship nouns are inflected for personal pronominal possession.
- Adverbs can be derived from the verb roots.
- A passive construction may be employed idiomatically.
Negativization process
Verbs in Assamese are negativized by adding /n/ before the verb, with /n/ picking up the initial vowel of the verb. For example:[45]
/na laɡɛ/ 'do(es) not want' (1st, 2nd and 3rd persons)
/ni likʰʊ̃/ 'will not write' (1st person)
/nukutʊ̃/ 'will not nibble' (1st person)
/nɛlɛkʰɛ/ 'does not count' (3rd person)
/nɔkɔɹɔ/ 'do not do' (2nd person)
Classifiers
Assamese has a huge collection of classifiers, which are used extensively for different kinds of objects, acquired from Sino-Tibetan languages.[46] A few examples of the most extensive and elaborate use of classifiers given below:
- "zɔn" is used to signify a person, male with some amount of respect
- E.g., manuh-zɔn – "the man"
- "zɔni" (female) is used after a noun or pronoun to indicate human beings
- E.g., manuh-zɔni – "the woman"
- "zɔni" is also used to express the non-human feminine
- E.g., sɔɹai zɔni – "the bird", pɔɹuwa-zɔni – "the ant"
- "zɔna" and "gɔɹaki" are used to express high respect for both man and woman
- E.g., kɔbi-zɔna – "the poet", gʊxaɪ-zɔna – "the goddess", rastrapati-gɔɹaki – "the president", tiɹʊta-gɔɹaki – "the woman"
- "tʊ" has three forms: tʊ, ta, ti
- (a) tʊ: is used to specify something, although someone, e.g., loɹa-tʊ – "the particular boy" (impolite)
- (b) ta: is used only after numerals, e.g., ɛta, duta, tinita – "one, two, three"
- (c) ti: is the diminutive form, e.g., kesua-ti – "the infant, besides expressing more affection or attachment to
- "kɔsa", "mɔtʰa" and "taɹ" are used for things in bunches
- E.g., sabi-kɔsa - "the bunch of key", saul-mɔtʰa – "a handful of rice", suli-taɹi or suli kɔsa – "the bunch of hair"
dal, dali, are used after nouns to indicate something long but round and solid
- E.g., bãʱ-dal - "the bamboo", katʰ-dal – "the piece of wood", bãʱ-dali – "the piece of bamboo"
| Classifier | Referent | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| /zɔn/ | males (adult) | manuh-zɔn (the man - honorific) |
| /zɔni/ | females (women as well as animals) | manuh-zɔni (the woman), sɔrai-zɔni (the bird) |
| /zɔna/ | honorific | kobi-zɔna (the poet), gʊxai-zɔna (the god/goddess) |
| /ɡɔɹaki/ | males and females (honorific) | manuh-ɡɔɹaki (the woman), rastrɔpɔti-gɔɹaki (the president) |
| /tʊ/ | inanimate objects or males of animals and men (impolite) | manuh-tʊ (the man - diminutive), gɔɹu-tʊ (the cow) |
| /ti/ | inanimate objects or infants | kesua-ti (the baby) |
| /ta/ | for counting numerals | e-ta (count one), du-ta (count two) |
| /kʰɔn/ | flat square or rectangular objects, big or small, long or short | |
| /kʰɔni/ | terrain like rivers and mountains | |
| /tʰupi/ | small objects | |
| /zak/ | group of people, cattle; also for rain; cyclone | |
| /sati/ | breeze | |
| /pat/ | objects that are thin, flat, wide or narrow. | |
| /paɦi/ | flowers | |
| /sɔta/ | objects that are solid | |
| /kɔsa/ | mass nouns | |
| /mɔtʰa/ | bundles of objects | |
| /mutʰi/ | smaller bundles of objects | |
| /taɹ/ | broomlike objects | |
| /ɡɔs/ | wick-like objects | |
| /ɡɔsi/ | with earthen lamp or old style kerosene lamp used in Assam | |
| /zʊpa/ | objects like trees and shrubs | |
| /kʰila/ | paper and leaf-like objects | |
| /kʰini/ | uncountable mass nouns and pronouns | |
| /dal/ | inanimate flexible/stiff or oblong objects; humans (pejorative) |
In Assamese, classifiers are generally used in the numeral + classifier + noun (e.g. /ezɔn manuh/ 'one man') or the noun + numeral + classifier (e.g. /manuh ezɔn/ 'one man') forms.
Nominalization
Most verbs can be converted into nouns by the addition of the suffix /ɔn/. For example, /kʰa/ ('to eat') can be converted to /kʰaɔn/ ('good eating').[47]
Grammatical cases
Assamese has 8 grammatical cases:
| Cases | Suffix | Example | Literal English translation | Normal English translation | Note |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Absolutive | none | বাৰীত গৰু সোমাল। (barit goru- xümal.) | Garden-LOC cattle-ABS entered | Cattles entered into the garden. | |
Ergative | -এ, -ই (-e, -i) | গৰুৱে ঘাঁহ খায়। (goru-e ghãh kha-e.) | Cattle-ERG grass-ACC eat-(3rd person, habitual present) | Cattles eat grass. | The personal pronouns without a plural or other suffix are not marked. |
Accusative | -(অ)ক, − (-(o)k, −) | ১. শিয়ালটোৱে শহাটোক খেদি আছে। (1. xial-tü-e xoha-tü-k khedi ase.) ২. তেওঁলোকে চোৰটো পুলিচক গতালে। (2. teü̃lük-e sür-tü- pulis-ok gotale.) | 1. Jackal-the-ERG hare-the-ACC chasing exist-(3rd person, present continuous). 2. They thief-the-ACC police-ACC handover-(recent past)-(3rd person). | 1. The jackal is chasing the hare. 2. They handed over the thief to the police. | |
Genitive | -(অ)ৰ (-(o)r) | তাইৰ ঘৰ (tai-r ghor) | she-GEN house | Her house | |
Dative | -(অ)লৈ [dialectal: -(অ)লে]; -(অ)ক (-(o)loi [dialectal: -(o)le]; -(o)k) | ১. সি পঢ়াশালিলৈ গৈ আছে। (1. xi porhaxali-loi goi ase.) ২. বাক চাবিটো দিয়া। (2. ba-k sabi-tü- dia.) | 1. He school-DAT going exist-(3rd person, present continuous) 2. Eldersister-DAT key-the-ACC give-(familiar, imperative). | 1. He is going to (the) school. 2. Give elder sister the key. | |
Terminative | -(অ)লৈকে [dialectal: -(অ)লেকে] (-(o)loi [dialectal: -(o)leke]) | ১. মই নহালৈকে ক’তো নেযাবা। (1. moi n-oha-loike kót-ü ne-za-b-a.) ২. ১ৰ পৰা ৭লৈকে (2. 1-or pora 7-oloike) | 1. I not-coming-TERM where-even not-go-future-(3rd person) 2. 1-GEN from 7-TERM | 1. Don't go anywhere until I don't come. 2. From 1 up to 7 | |
Instrumental | -(এ)ৰে [dialectal: -(এ)দি] (-(e)re [dialectical: -(e)di]) | কলমেৰে লিখিছিলা। (kolom-ere likhisila.) | pen-INS write-(2rd person, distant past). | You wrote with (a) pen. | |
Locative | -(অ)ত [sometimes: -এ] (-(o)t [sometimes: -e]) | ১. সি বহীখনত লিখিছে। (1. xi bohi-khon-ot likhise.) ২. আইতা মঙলবাৰে আহিছিল। (2. aita moŋolbar-e ahisil.) | 1. He notebook-the-LOC write-(present perfect)-(3rd person). 2. Grandmother Tuesday-LOC come-(distant past)-(3rd person). | 1. He has written on the notebook. 2. Grandmother came on Tuesday. |
Pronouns
| Number | Person | Gender | Pronouns | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Absolutive Ergative | Accusative Dative | Genitive | Locative | Dative | |||
| Singular | 1st | m/f (I) | moi | mük | mür | müt | müloi |
| 2nd | m/f (you) | toi ᵛ tumi ᶠ apuni ᵖ | tük tümak apünak | tür tümar apünar | tüt tümat apünat | tüloi tümaloi apünaloi | |
| 3rd | m (he) n (it, that) | i * xi ** | iak tak | iar tar | iat tat | ialoi taloi | |
| f (she) | ei * tai ** | eik taik | eir tair | eit tait | eiloi tailoi | ||
| n & p (he/she) | eü/ekhet(-e ᵉ) * teü/tekhet(-e ᵉ) ** | eük/ekhetok teük/tekhetok | eür/ekhetor teür/tekhetor | eüt/ekhetot teüt/tekhetot | eüloi/ekhetoloi teüloi/tekhetoloi | ||
| Plural | 1st | m/f (we) | ami | amak | amar | amat | amaloi |
| 2nd | m/f (you) | tohõt(-e ᵉ) ᵛ tümalük(-e ᵉ) ᶠ apünalük(-e ᵉ) ᵖ | tohõtok tümalükok apünalükok | tohõtor tümalükor apünalükor | tohõtot tümalükot apünalükot | tohõtoloi tümalükoloi apünalükoloi | |
| 3rd | m/f (they) | ihõt * eülük/ekhetxokol(-e ᵉ) ᵖ * xihõt ** teülük/tekhetxokol(-e ᵉ) ᵖ ** | ihõtok xihotõk eülükok/ekhetxokolok teülükok/tekhetxokolok | ihõtor xihotõr eülükor/ekhetxokolor teülükor/tekhetxokolor | ihõtot xihotõt eülükot/ekhetxokolot teülükot/tekhetxokolot | ihõtoloi xihotõloi eülükok/ekhetxokololoi teülükoloi/tekhetxokololoi | |
| n (these, those) | eibür(-e ᵉ) ᵛ * eibilak(-e ᵉ) ᶠ * eixomuh(-e ᵉ) ᵖ * xeibür(-e ᵉ) ᵛ ** xeibilak(-e ᵉ) ᶠ ** xeixomuh(-e) ᵖ ** | eibürok eibilakok eixomuhok xeibürok xeibilakok xeixomuhok | eibüror eibilakor eixomuhor xeibüror xeibilakor xeixomuhor | eibürot eibilakot eixomuhot xeibürot xeibilakot xeixomuhot | eibüroloi eibilakoloi eixomuholoi xeibüroloi xeibilakoloi xeixomuholoi | ||
m=male, f=female, n=neuter., *=the person or object is near., **=the person or object is far., v =very familiar, inferior, f=familiar, p=polite, e=ergative form.
Tense
With consonant ending verb likh (write) and vowel ending verb kha (eat, drink, consume).
| Stem | Likh, Kha |
|---|---|
| Gerund | Likha, khüa |
| Causative | Likha, khua |
| Conjugative | Likhi, Khai & Kha |
| Infinitive | Likhibo, Khabo |
| Goal | Likhiboloi, Khaboloi |
| Terminative | Likhiboloike, Khaboloike |
| Agentive | Likhüta ⁿᵖ/Likhüra ᵐⁱ/Likhüri ᶠⁱ, Khaüta ⁿᵖ/Khaüra ᵐⁱ/Khaüri ᶠⁱ |
| Converb | Likhüte, Khaüte |
| Progressive | Likhüte likhüte, Khaüte khaüte |
| Reason | Likhat, Khüat |
| Likhilot, Khalot | |
| Conditional | Likhile, Khale |
| Perfective | Likhi, Khai |
| Habitual | Likhi likhi, Khai khai |
For different types of verbs.
| Tense | Person | tho "put" | kha "consume" | pi "drink" | de "give" | dhu "wash" | kor "do" | randh "cook" | ah "come" | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| + | - | + | - | + | - | + | - | + | - | + | - | + | - | + | - | ||
| Simple Present | 1st per. | thoü | nothoü | khaü | nakhaü ~ nekhaü | piü | nipiü | diü | nidiü | dhuü | nudhuü | korü | nokorü | randhü | narandhu ~ nerandhü | ahü | nahü |
| 2nd per. inf. | thoö | nothoö | khao | nakhao ~ nekhao | pio | nipio | dio | nidio | dhuo | nudhuo | koro | nokoro | randho | narandho ~ nerandho | aho | naho | |
| 2nd per. pol. | thüa | nüthüa | khüa | nükhüa | pia | nipia | dia | nidia | dhüa | nüdhüa | kora | nokora | randha | narandha ~ nerandha | aha | naha | |
| 2nd per. hon. & 3rd per. | thoe | nothoe | khae | nakhae ~ nekhae | pie | nipie | die | nidie | dhue | nudhue | kore | nokore | randhe | narandhe ~ nerandhe | ahe | nahe | |
| Present continuous | 1st per. | thoi asü | thoi thoka nai | khai asü | khai thoka nai | pi asu | pi thoka nai | di asü | di thoka nai | dhui asü | dhui thoka nai | kori asü | kori thoka nai | randhi asü | randhi thoka nai | ahi asü | ahi thoka nai |
| 2nd per. inf. | thoi aso | khai aso | pi aso | di aso | dhui aso | kori aso | randhi aso | ahi aso | |||||||||
| 2nd per. pol. | thoi asa | khai asa | pi asa | di asa | dhui asa | kori asa | randhi asa | ahi asa | |||||||||
| 2nd per. hon. & 3rd per. | thoi ase | khai ase | pi ase | di ase | dhui ase | kori ase | randhi ase | ahi ase | |||||||||
| Present Perfect | 1st per. | thoisü | thüa nai | khaisü | khüa nai | pisü | pia nai | disü | dia nai | dhui asü | dhüa nai | korisü | kora nai | randhisü | rondha nai | ahi asü | oha nai |
| 2nd per. inf. | thoiso | khaiso | piso | diso | dhuiso | koriso | randhiso | ahiso | |||||||||
| 2nd per. pol. | thoisa | khaisa | pisa | disa | dhuisa | korisa | randhisa | ahisa | |||||||||
| 2nd per. hon. & 3rd per. | thoise | khaise | pise | dise | dhuise | korise | randhise | ahise | |||||||||
| Recent Past | 1st per. | thölü | nothölü | khalü | nakhalü ~ nekhalü | pilü | nipilü | dilü | nidilü | dhulü | nudhulü | korilü | nokorilü | randhilü | narandhilü ~ nerandhilü | ahilü | nahilü |
| 2nd per. inf. | thöli | nothöli | khali | nakhali ~ nekhali | pili | nipili | dili | nidili | dhuli | nudhuli | korili | nokorili | randhili | narandhili ~ nerandhili | ahilu | nahilu | |
| 2nd per. pol. | thöla | nothöla | khala | nakhala ~ nekhala | pila | nipila | dila | nidila | dhula | nudhula | korila | nokorila | randhila | narandhila ~ nerandhila | ahila | nahila | |
| 2nd per. hon. & 3rd per. | thöle | nothöle | khale | nakhale ~ nekhale | pile | nipile | dile | nidile | dhule | nudhule | korile | nokorile | randhile | narandhile ~ nerandhile | ahile / ahilᵗʳ | nahile / nahilᵗʳ | |
| Distant Past | 1st per. | thoisilü | nothoisilü ~ thüa nasilü | khaisilü | nakhaisilü ~ nekhaisilü ~ khüa nasilü | pisilü | nipisilü ~ pia nasilü | disilü | nidisilü ~ dia nasilü | dhuisilü | nudhuisilü ~ dhüa nasilü | korisilü | nokorisilü ~ kora nasilü | randhisilü | narandhisilü ~ nerandhisilü ~ rondha nasilü | ahisilü | nahisilü ~ oha nasilü |
| 2nd per. inf. | thoisili | nothoisili ~ thüa nasili | khaisili | nakhaisili ~ nekhaisili ~ khüa nasili | pisili | nipisili ~ pia nasili | disili | nidisili ~ dia nasili | dhuisili | nudhuisili ~ dhüa nasili | korisili | nokorisili ~ kora nasili | randhisili | narandhisili ~ nerandhisili ~ rondha nasili | ahisili | nahisili ~ oha nasili | |
| 2nd per. pol. | thoisila | nothoisila ~ thüa nasila | khaisila | nakhaisila ~ nekhaisila ~ khüa nasila | pisila | nipisila ~ pia nasila | disila | nidisila ~ dia nasila | dhuisila | nudhuisila ~ dhüa nasila | korisila | nokorisila ~ kora nasila | randhisila | narandhisila ~ nerandhisila ~ rondha nasila | ahisila | nahisila ~ oha nasila | |
| 2nd per. hon. & 3rd per. | thoisile | nothoisile ~ thüa nasile | khaisile | nakhaisile ~ nekhaisile ~ khüa nasile | pisile | nipisile ~ pia nasile | disile | nidisile ~ dia nasile | dhuisile | nudhuisile ~ dhüa nasile | korisile | nokorisile ~ kora nasile | randhisile | narandhisile ~ nerandhisile ~ rondha nasile | ahisile | nahisile ~ oha nasile | |
| Past continuous | 1st per. | thoi asilü | thoi thoka nasilü | khai asilü | khai thoka nasilü | pi asilü | pi thoka nasilü | di asilü | di thoka nasilü | dhui asilü | dhui thoka nasilü | kori asilü | kori thoka nasilü | randhi asilü | randhi thoka nasilü | ahi asilü | ahi thoka nasilü |
| 2nd per. inf. | thoi asili | thoi thoka nasili | khai asili | khai thoka nasili | pi asili | pi thoka nasili | di asili | di thoka nasili | dhui asili | dhui thoka nasili | kori asili | kori thoka nasili | randhi asili | randhi thoka nasili | ahi asili | ahi thoka nasili | |
| 2nd per. pol. | thoi asila | thoi thoka nasila | khai asila | khai thoka nasila | pi asila | pi thoka nasila | di asila | di thoka nasila | dhui asila | dhui thoka nasila | kori asila | kori thoka nasila | randhi asila | randhi thoka nasila | ahi asila | ahi thoka nasila | |
| 2nd per. hon. & 3rd per. | thoi asil(e) | thoi thoka nasil(e) | khai asil(e) | khai thoka nasil(e) | pi asil(e) | pi thoka nasil(e) | di asil(e) | di thoka nasil(e) | dhui asil(e) | dhui thoka nasil(e) | kori asil(e) | kori thoka nasil(e) | randhi asil(e) | randhi thoka nasil(e) | ahi asil{e) | ahi thoka nasil(e) | |
| Simple Future | 1st per. | thöm | nothöm | kham | nakham ~ nekham | pim | nipim | dim | nidim | dhum | nudhum | korim | nokorim | randhim | narandhim ~ nerandhim | ahim | nahim |
| 2nd per. inf. | thöbi | nothöbi | khabi | nakhabi ~ nekhabi | pibi | nipibi | dibi | nidibi | dhubi | nudhubi | koribi | nokoribi | randhibi | narandhibi ~ nerandhibi | ahibi | nahibi | |
| 2nd per. pol. | thöba | nothöba | khaba | nakhaba ~ nekhaba | piba | nipiba | diba | nidiba | dhuba | nudhuba | koriba | nokoriba | randhiba | narandhiba ~ nerandhiba | ahiba | nahiba | |
| 2nd per. hon. & 3rd per. | thöbo | nothöbo | khabo | nakhabo ~ nekhabo | pibo | nipibo | dibo | nidibo | dhubo | nudhubo | koribo | nokoribo | randhibo | narandhibo ~ nerandhibo | ahibo | nahibo | |
| Future continuous | 1st per. | thoi thakim | thoi nathakim/nethakim | khai thakim | khai nathakim/nethakim | pi thakim | pi nathakim/nethakim | di thakim | di nathakim/nethakim | dhui thakim | dhui nathakim/nethakim | kori thakim | kori nathakim/nethakim | randhi thakim | randhi nathakim/nethakim | ahi thakim | ahi nathakim/nethakim |
| 2nd per. inf. | thoi thakibi | thoi nathakibi/nethakibi | khai thakibi | khai nathakibi/nethakibi | pi thakibi | pi nathakibi/nethakibi | di thakibi | di nathakibi/nethakibi | dhui thakibi | dhui nathakibi/nethakibi | kori thakibi | kori nathakibi/nethakibi | randhi thakibi | randhi nathakibi/nethakibi | ahi thakibi | ahi nathakibi/nethakibi | |
| 2nd per. pol. | thoi thakiba | thoi nathakiba/nethakiba | khai thakiba | khai nathakiba/nethakiba | pi thakiba | pi nathakiba/nethakiba | di thakiba | di nathakiba/nethakiba | dhui thakiba | dhui nathakiba/nethakiba | kori thakiba | kori nathakiba/nethakiba | randhi thakiba | randhi nathakiba/nethakiba | ahi thakiba | ahi nathakiba/nethakiba | |
| 2nd per. hon. & 3rd per. | thoi thakibo | thoi nathakibo/nethakibo | khai thakibo | khai nathakibo/nethakibo | pi thakibo | pi nathakibo/nethakibo | di thakibo | di nathakibo/nethakibo | dhui thakibo | dhui nathakibo/nethakibo | kori thakibo | kori nathakibo/nethakibo | randhi thakibo | randhi nathakibo/nethakibo | ahi thakibo | ahi nathakibo/nethakibo | |
The negative forms are n + 1st vowel of the verb + the verb. Example: Moi porhü, Moi noporhü (I read, I do not read); Tumi khelila, Tumi nekhelila (You played, You didn't play). For verbs that start with a vowel, just the n- is added, without vowel lengthening. In some dialects if the 1st vowel is a in a verb that starts with consonant, ne is used, like, Moi nakhaü (I don't eat) is Moi nekhaü. In past continuous the negative form is -i thoka nasil-. In future continuous it's -i na(/e)thaki-. In present continuous and present perfect, just -i thoka nai and -a nai' respectively are used for all personal pronouns. Sometimes for plural pronouns, the -hok suffix is used, like korühok (we do), ahilahok (you guys came).
Relationship suffixes
| Persons | Suffix | Example | English translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | none | Mür/Amar ma, bap, kokai, vai, ba, voni | My/Our mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister |
| 2nd person (very familiar; inferior) | -(e)r | Tür/Tohõtor mar, baper, kokaier, vaier, bar, vonier | Your/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister |
| 2nd person familiar | -(e)ra | Tümar/Tümalükor mara, bapera, kokaiera, vaiera, bara, voniera | Your/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister |
| 2nd person formal; 3rd person | -(e)k | Apünar/Apünalükor/Tar/Tair/Xihotõr/Teür mak, bapek, kokaiek, vaiek, bak, voniek | Your/Your(pl)/His/Her/Their/His~Her(formal) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister |
Dialects
Regional dialects
The language has quite a few regional variations. Banikanta Kakati identified two broad dialects which he named (1) Eastern and (2) Western dialects,[48] of which the eastern dialect is homogeneous, and prevalent to the east of Guwahati, and the western dialect is heterogeneous. However, recent linguistic studies have identified four dialect groups listed below from east to west:[34]
Eastern group in and around Sivasagar District, i.e., the regions of the former undivided Sivasagar district, areas of the present day Golaghat, Jorhat and Sivasagar
Central group in Nagaon, Sonitpur, Morigaon districts and adjoining areas
Kamrupi group primarily in the Kamrup region, Darrang, Barpeta (Barpetia).
Goalpariya group in the Goalpara region
Comparison
| English | Eastern | Central | Kamrupi | Goalpariya |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mother | Ma, Ai | Mai | Mai | Maö, Mai |
| Why | Kio, Kelei | Kia | Kia | Kene |
| Wind | Botah | Batah | Batash | |
| Money | Toka | Toka | Taka | Taka |
| Crab | Keküra | Kakra | ||
| And | Aru (,Akou) | Aö, Ako | Aro, Aku | Ar, Arö |
| Young male | Deka, Sengelia | Deka, Sengea | Sengra | Sengra |
| Cattle | Goru | Goo | Goru | Göru |
| Buffalo | Móh | Moh | Moih | Moish |
| Bad | Bea | Bea | Boea, Büea | Bea, Boea |
| Plough | Nangol, Hal | Langon, Hal | Nangal, Hal | |
| Seedlings | Kothia | Kothia | Koitha | |
| Mud | Büka | Böka | Pek | |
| Now | Etia | Itia | Ela | |
| Once | Ebar | Eba | Ekbar | Ekbar |
| I can, I can't, I could, I couldn't | Parü, Nüarü, Parilü, Nüarilü | Paong, Noong, Paĩlong, Noĩlong | Paru, Noru, Pallu, Nollu | Parong, Naparong/Parong na, Parlung, Naparlung/Parlung na |
| Good person | Bhal manuh | Bhal manhu | Bhal manhu | Bhal manshi |
| I went home. | Moi ghoroloi goisilü. | Moe ghook goesilong. | Moi ghorük geisilu. | Mui ghor geisilung. |
| Will you go when I come? | Moi ahile toi zabi ne? | Moe ahili toi zabi na? | Moi aihli toi zabi na? | Mui ashile ki tui zabi? |
| He told us to get off the vehicle. | Xi amak garir pora namiboloi kóle. | Xi amak gai pa namiba ligi kola. | Xi amak garir para nambak logi kolak. | Oui amak gaṛi thakia namibar koil. |
| You should not cut the tree with the dao. | Toi gosdal dakhonere katibo nelage. | Toi gosdal daxanedi katiba nalage. | Toi gasdal dakhan di katba nalge. | Tui gasṭa daökhan dia kaṭiba nalage. |
| Will he go? | Xi zabo ne? | Xi zabo na? | Xi zabo na | Oui ki zabe? |
| If we die, you will also die. | Ami morile toiü moribi. | Ami moili toü moibi. | Ami molli toiü morbi. | Amra/Ami morle tuiö morbi. |
| I will tell who will be the king. | Roza kün höbo moi köm. | Raza kün hobu moe kom. | Raza kae hobo moi kom. | Raza kae hoibe mui koim. |
| When I was bringing the eggs, they fell on the ground. | Moi konibilak anüte matit pori göl. | Moe konibilak anöngte matit pori gol. | Moi dimagilak ante matit pori gel. | Mui dimagilak anite matit poria geil. |
| I brought fish for Nitu catching from the pond. | Nituloi pukhurir pora mas dhori anisü. | Nitu ligi puxui pa mas dhoi anisöng | Nituk lagi pukhrir para mas dhori ansü. | Nituk lagia pukhrir para mas dhoria ancung. |
| You sit. (Polite) | Apuni bohok. | Aponi bohok. | Apni bohok. | Tömra boshö. |
| Ram also went to his home eating rice with them. | Xihõtor logot Rameü bhat khai kamtü korile. | Tahãtü logot Ameü bhat khai kamtü koila. | Tahãtor logot Rameü bhat khai kamtü kollak | Umrar logot Ram(e)ö bhai khaea kazṭa korilek. |
| I don't eat these in this manner. | Moi enekoi eibür nekhaü. | Moe eneke eibhu naxang. | Moi enke eigila nakhaü. | Mui engka eigila nakhang. |
| When did you come? | Toi ketia ahiso? | Toe kitita ahiso? | Toi kitia aihso? | Tui kunbela ashcish? |
| English | Eastern | Central | Kamrupi | Goalpariya |
Samples
Collected from Gierson's linguistic Survey of India. The translations are not close to literal:
English: A man had two sons. The younger son told his father, ‘I want my share of your estate now before you die.’ So his father agreed to divide his wealth between his sons. A few days later this younger son packed all his belongings and moved to a distant land, and there he wasted all his money in wild living. About the time his money ran out, a great famine swept over the land, and he began to starve. He persuaded a local farmer to hire him, and the man sent him into his fields to feed the pigs. The young man became so hungry that even the pods he was feeding the pigs looked good to him. But no one gave him anything. When he finally came to his senses, he said to himself, ‘At home even the hired servants have food enough to spare, and here I am dying of hunger!’
Eastern Assamese: Künü ezon manuhor duta putek asil, tar bhitorot xorutüe bapekok kóle, “Pitai! xompottir zi bhag moi pam xea mük de!” tate teü apün xompotti xihõtor mazot bãti dile. Olop dinor pasot xorutüe güteikhini ekelog kori loi dur dexoloi gusi göl. Xei dexoloi goi lompot asoronere tar xompotti nosto korile. Xi güteikhini khoros kori pelüar pasot xei dexot bor dangor akal höl aru xiü bor kostot poril. Tar pasot xi goi xei dexor manuh etar log lagil. Xei manuhtüe tak tar potharot gahori soraboloi pothai dile. Pasot gahorie khüa sẽire tar pet bhoraboloi bor hẽpah korileü tak küneü ekü nidile. Pasot seton pai xi kóle, “Mür büpair koto dormoha khüa sakoreü xihõtor logakhinitkoiü besi khüabostu pae aru iat moi bhükot moriboloi dhorisü.
Central Assamese: Manhu ezono duta putak asil. Tahãtüü bhitoot xoutü putake bapekok kola,
Kamrupi: Eta manhur duta putak asil. Tahãtor bhitorot xorutü putake bapakok kolak, “Bapa! Moi zi bostur bhag pam tak mük di! Tate xi tahãtor bhitorot bostu bhag kori dilak. Olop dinor pasot xorutü putake xomudaekheni bostu log kori loi dur dexok lagi gel aro tat zai dhangkhila kori apünar bostukheni nosto korilak. Xi tar gütaikheni bostu khoros kori phelüar pasot xei dexot eta bor dangar akal höl. Aro tar khabalobar nohüa hoba dhorilak. Tetia xi zai xer dexor ek girir log lagil. Xei manhutüi tak tar potharot bora saribak legi khedelak. Pasot borai zi xukti khai take khai tar pet bhorabak legi parileü tar bhal lagat poril. Kintu tak kaüei ekü nedlak. Xi zetia nizor opokormo buziba parilak xi tetia kolak, mür bapar kiman dormaha khaüa sakareü tahãtor laga khenitkeü besi khaüa bostu pae aro moi iat bhukhot moriba dhorisü.
Goalpariya (western): Ek zonkar dui beṭa asil. Tar bhitrot söṭo beṭa tar bapok koil, "Baba, ɡirostir ze bhaɡ mũi paim ta mök de." Tate tãe tamar mazot ɡirosti baṭia dil. Olpo koe din pasot söṭo beta śoub ekeṭe koria durantor ek deshot paitra koril. Śe deśot zaea ḍhuḍḍami koria aponar ɡhoṛ ɡirosti uṛaia dil. Tãe śoub khoroc koria phelar pasot śei deśot boṛo monɡɡa hoil tãeö boṛo kośṭot poril. Tar pasot tãe zaea śei deśer ekzon ɡirir kasot zaea auzil. Tãe tak aponar patarot śuor coṛbar paṭea dil. Pasot śuore ze cokla khae, tak khaea peṭ bhorbar haus kolleo, kintuk kãeö tak dil na. Pasot ceton paea tãe koil, "Amar baper koto maina khaöa cakor ek pala koria khabar pae ar mũi eṭe bhögot moribar dhorcung.
Non-regional dialects
Assamese does not have caste- or occupation-based dialects.[49] In the nineteenth century, the Eastern dialect became the standard dialect because it witnessed more literary activity and it was more uniform from east of Guwahati to Sadiya,[50] whereas the western dialects were more heterogeneous.[51] Since the nineteenth century, the center of literary activity (as well as of politics and commerce) has shifted to Guwahati; as a result, the standard dialect has evolved considerably away from the largely rural Eastern dialects and has become more urban and acquired western dialectal elements.[52] Most literary activity takes place in this dialect, and is often called the likhito-bhaxa, though regional dialects are often used in novels and other creative works.
In addition to the regional variants, sub-regional, community-based dialects are also prevalent, namely:
Standard dialect influenced by surrounding centers.
Bhakatiya dialect highly polite, sattra-based dialect with a different set of nominals, pronominals and verbal forms, as well as a preference for euphemism; indirect and passive expressions.[53] Some of these features are used in the standard dialect on very formal occasions.- The fisherman community has a dialect that is used in the central and eastern region.
- The astrologer community of Darrang district has a dialect called thar that is coded and secretive. The ratikhowa and bhitarpanthiya secretive cult-based Vaisnava groups too have their own dialects.[54]
- The Muslim community have their own dialectal preference, with their own kinship, custom and religious terms, with those in east Assam having distinct phonetic features.[52]
- The urban adolescent and youth communities (for example, Guwahati) have exotic, hybrid and local slangs.[52]
- Ethnic speech communities that use Assamese as a second language, often use dialects that are influenced heavily by the pronunciation, intonation, stress, vocabulary and syntax of their respective first languages (Mising Eastern Assamese, Bodo Central Kamrupi, Rabha Eastern Goalpariya etc.).[54] Two independent pidgins/creoles, associated with the Assamese language, are Nagamese (used by Naga groups) and Nefamese (used in Arunachal Pradesh).[55]
Literature
There is a growing and strong body of literature in this language. The first characteristics of this language are seen in the Charyapadas composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana. The popular ballad in the form of Ojapali is also regarded as well-crafted. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a flourishing of Vaishnavite literature, leading up to the emergence of modern forms of literature in the late nineteenth century.
Sample text
The following is a sample text in Assamese of the Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
Assamese in Assamese alphabet
- দফা ১: সকলো মানুহে স্বাধীনভাৱে সমান ঠাকুৰালি আৰু অধিকাৰে জন্ম লয় । সকলোৰে বিবেক আৰু জ্ঞান-বুদ্ধি আছে আৰু সকলোৱে এজনে আনজনক ভাই-ভাই হিচাপে ব্যৱহাৰ দিব লাগে ।
Assamese in phonetic Romanization 1
Dopha êk: Xôkôlû manuhê sadhinbhawê xôman thakurali aru ôdhikarê zônmô lôy. Xôkôlûrê bibêk aru ɡyan-buddhi asê aru xôkôlûê êzônê anzônôk bhai-bhai hisapê byôwôhar dibô lagê.
Assamese in phonetic Romanization 2
Dopha ek: Xokolü manuhe sadhinbhawe xoman thakurali aru odhikare zonmo loy. Xokolüre bibek aru ɡyan-buddhi ase aru xokolüe ezone anzonok bhai-bhai hisape byowohar dibo lage.
Assamese in the International Phonetic Alphabet
- /dɔɸa ɛk | xɔkɔlʊ manuɦɛ sadʱinbʱaβɛ xɔman tʰakuɹali aɹu ɔdʱikaɹɛ zɔnmɔ lɔe̯ || xɔkɔlʊɹɛ bibɛk aɹu ɡɪan-buddʱi asɛ aɹu xɔkɔlʊɛ ɛzɔnɛ anzɔnɔ bʱaɪ-bʱaɪ ɦisapɛ bɛβɔɦaɹ dibɔ lagɛ/
Gloss
Clause 1: all human free-manner-in equal dignity and right taken birth take. Everyone's reason and conscience exist; and everyone-indeed one towards another brothers as behaviour give-to should.
Translation
Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
See also
- Indo-Aryan languages
- Languages of India
- Languages with official status in India
- List of Indian languages by total speakers
- List of languages by number of native speakers
- Kamrupi litterateurs
Notes
^ "2016. Ethnologic: Languages of the World, Nineteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International". SIL International. 2016..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
^ "The Indo-Aryan languages, Routledge Language Family Series, vol. 2, London and New York: Routledge" (PDF). George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain. 2003.
^ "Assamese". lisindia.net.
^ [1]
^ http://sealang.net/ahom/
^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Assamese". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
^ "Assamese - definition of Assamese in English from the Oxford dictionary". Retrieved 2 March 2016.
^ "2016. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Nineteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International". SIL International. 2016.
^ "Consonant Germination and Compensatory Lengthening in Asamiya dialects: Contemporary standard and Central Assam" (PDF). Dipankar Moral - Gauhati University.
^ "International Conference on Universal Knowledge and Language. Goa, 25 - 27 November, 2002 - DEURI and TIWA: Endangered languages in the Brahmaputra valley" (PDF). Dipankar Moral, Gauhati University. November 2002.
^ "Statement". censusindia.gov.in. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012.
^ "Axomiya is the major language spoken in Assam, and serves almost as a lingua franca among the different speech communities in the whole area." (Goswami 2003:394)
^ "...Rajbangshi dialect of the Rangpur Division (Bangladesh), and the adjacent Indian Districts of Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar, has been classed with Bengali because its speakers identify with the Bengali culture and literary language, although it is linguistically closer to Assamese." (Masica 1993, p. 25)
^ Sen, Sukumar (1975), Grammatical sketches of Indian languages with comparative vocabulary and texts, Volume 1, P 31
^ "...the MIA languages are not younger than ('classical') Sanskrit. And a number of their morphophonological and lexical features betray the fact that they are not direct descendants of Rigvedic Sanskrit, the main basis of 'Classical' Sanskrit; rather they descend from dialects which, despite many similarities, were different from Rigvedic and in some regards even more archaic." (Oberlies 2007:163)
^ Proto-Kamta took its inheritance from ?proto-Kamarupa (and before that from ?proto-Gauda-Kamarupa), innovated the unique features ... in 1250-1550 AD" (Toulmin 2006:306)
^ "Axomiya has historically originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, but the exact nature of its origin and growth is not very clear as yet." (Goswami 2003:394)
^ (Kakati 1941, p. 6)
^ Goswami, Golockchandra (1982), Structure of Assamese, Page 3
^ There is evidence that the Prakrit of the Kamarupa kingdom differed enough from the Magadhi Prakrit to be identified as either a parallel Kamrupi Prakrit or at least an eastern variety of the Magadha Prakrit (Sharma 1990:0.24–0.28)
^ "It is curious to find that according to (Hiuen Tsang) the language of Kamarupa 'differed a little' from that of mid-India. Hiuen Tsang is silent about the language of Pundra-vardhana or Karna-Suvarna; it can be presumed that the language of these tracts were identical with that of Magadha." (Chatterji 1926, p. 78)
^ "Perhaps this 'differing a little' of the Kamarupa speech refers to those modifications of Aryan sounds which now characterise Assamese as well as North- and East-Bengali dialects." (Chatterji 1926, pp. 78–89)
^ "When [the Tibeto-Burman speakers] adopted that language they also enriched it with their vocabularies, expressions, affixes etc." (Saikia 1997, p. 4)
^ Moral 1997, pp. 43-53.
^ "... (it shows) that in Ancient Assam there were three languages viz. (1) Sanskrit as the official language and the language of the learned few, (2) Non-Aryan tribal languages of the Austric and Tibeto-Burman families, and (3) a local variety of Prakrit (ie a MIA) wherefrom, in course of time, the modern Assamese language as a MIL, emerged." (Sharma 1978, pp. xxiv-xxviii)
^ Medhi 1988, pp. 67–63.
^ Guha 1983, p. 9.
^ Goswami 2003, p. 434.
^ "Assamese Association – of Australia (ACT & NSW)".
^ "Welcome to the Website of "Axom Xomaj",Dubai, UAE (Assam Society of Dubai, UAE)!".
^ "Constitution".
^ "AANA - AANA Overview".
^ "Secretariat Administration Department". assam.gov.in.
^ abc Assamese, Resource Centre for Indian Language Technology Solutions, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati.
^ "Assamese, alone among NIA languages except for Romany, has also lost the characteristic IA dental/retroflex contrast (although it is retained in spelling), reducing the number of articulations, with the loss also of /c/, to three." (Masica 1993, p. 95)
^ Moral 1997, p. 45.
^ The word "hare", for example: śaśka (OIA) > χɔhā (hare). (Masica 1993, p. 206)
^ Whereas most fricatives become sibilants in Eastern Goalpariya (sukh, santi, asa in Eastern Goalpariya; xukh, xanti, axa in western Kamrupi) (Dutta 1995, p. 286); some use of the fricative is seen as in the word xi (for both "he" and "she") (Dutta 1995, p. 287) and xap khar (the snake) (Dutta 1995, p. 288). The /x/ is completely absent in Western Goalpariya (Dutta 1995, p. 290)
^ B Datta (1982), Linguistic situation in north-east India, the distinctive h sound of Assamese is absent in the West Goalpariya dialect
^ Goswami, Upendranath (1970), A Study on Kamrupi, p.xiii /x/ does not occur finally in Kamrupi. But in St. Coll. it occurs. In non-initial positions O.I.A sibilants became /kʰ/ and also /h/ whereas in St. Coll. they become /x/.
^ Chatterjee, Suniti Kumar, Kirata Jana Krti, p. 54.
^ Moral 1997, p. 46.
^ Bara 1981, p. ?.
^ Kommaluri, Subramanian & Sagar K 2005.
^ Moral 1997, p. 47.
^ Moral 1997, pp. 49-51.
^ Moral 1997, p. 48.
^ "Assamese may be divided dialectically into Eastern and Western Assamese" (Kakati 1941, p. 16)
^ (Goswami 2003:403)
^ Kakati 1941, p. 14-16.
^ Goswami 2003, p. 436.
^ abc (Dutta 2003, p. 106)
^ Goswami 2003, pp. 439-440.
^ ab (Dutta 2003, p. 107)
^ (Dutta 2003, pp. 108–109)
References
.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}
Bara, Mahendra (1981), The Evolution of the Assamese Script, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
Dutta, Birendranath (1995). A Study of the Folk Culture of the Goalpara Region of Assam. Guwahati, Assam: University Publication Department, Gauhati University.
Dutta, Birendranath (2003). "Non-Standard Forms of Assamese: Their Socio-cultural Role". In Miri, Mrinal. Linguistic Situation In North-East India (2nd ed.). Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. pp. 101–110.
Goswami, G. C.; Tamuli, Jyotiprakash (2003), "Asamiya", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 391–443
Guha, Amalendu (December 1983), "The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in Medieval Assam (1228-1714)" (PDF), Social Scientist, 11 (12): 3–34, doi:10.2307/3516963, JSTOR 3516963
Kataki, Banikanta (1941), Assamese: Its Formation and Development, Gauhati, Assam: Government of Assam
Kommaluri, Vijayanand; Subramanian, R.; Sagar K, Anand (2005), "Issues in Morphological Analysis of North-East Indian Languages", Language in India, 5
Masica, Colin P (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
Medhi, Kaliram (1988), Assamese Grammar and the Origin of Assamese Language, Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam
Moral, Dipankar (1997), "North-East India as a Linguistic Area" (PDF), Mon-Khmer Studies, 27: 43–53
Oberlies, Thomas (2007), "Chapter Five: Aśokan Prakrit and Pāli", in Cardona, George; Jain, Danesh, The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9
Sharma, M. M. (1990), "Language and Literature", in Borthakur, H. K., The Comprehensive History of Assam: Ancient Period, I, Guwahati, Assam: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 263–284
Toulmin, Mathew W S (2006). Reconstructing linguistic history in a dialect continuum: The Kamta, Rajbanshi, and Northern Deshi Bangla subgroup of Indo-Aryan (Ph.D.). The Australian National University.
External links
 | Wikivoyage has an entry for Assamese phrasebook. |
 | Wikimedia Commons has media related to Assamese language. |
 | Assamese edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |
Assamese language at Curlie
Assamese language at Encyclopædia Britannica
- Axamiyaa Bhaaxaar Moulik Bisar by Mr Devananda Bharali (PDF)
- Tonkori (Affinities of the Ainu language of Japan with Assamese and some other languages) by Dr Satyakam Phukan
- Roots and Strings of the Assamese language, article by Dr Satyakam Phukan
Candrakānta abhidhāna : Asamiyi sabdara butpatti aru udaharanere Asamiya-Ingraji dui bhashara artha thaka abhidhana. second ed. Guwahati : Guwahati Bisbabidyalaya, 1962.
A Dictionary in Assamese and English (1867) First Assamese dictionary by Miles Bronson from (books.google.com)- Assamese computing resources at TDIL
- Assamese proverbs, published 1896
| Languages of India | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Official languages |
| ||||||
| Major unofficial languages |
| ||||||
Authority control  |
|
|---|
Comments
Post a Comment