South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

British overseas territory in the Southern Atlantic Ocean

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Flag Coat of arms
Motto:  "Leo Terram Propriam Protegat"  (Latin) "Let [or May] the Lion protect his own land"
Anthem: "God Save the Queen"
Location of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean
Status	British Overseas Territory
Capital	King Edward Point 54°17′S 36°30′W / 54.283°S 36.500°W / -54.283; -36.500
Largest settlement	Grytviken
Official languages	English
Demonym(s)	South Georgian South Sandwich Islander
Government	Dependency under a constitutional monarchy
• Monarch	Elizabeth II
• Commissioner	Nigel Phillips
• UK government minister[a]	Tariq Ahmad
Area
• Total	3,903 km2 (1,507 sq mi)
Population
• Estimate	35 (summer) 16 (winter)
Currency	Falkland Islands pound[1][b] (FKP)
Time zone	UTC−2 (GST)
Calling code	+500
ISO 3166 code	GS
Internet TLD	.gs
Website www.gov.gs
^ Minister of State in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office with responsibility for the British Overseas Territories. ^ Fixed to the pound sterling (GBP). The only place where visitors can spend money is the museum shop in Grytviken, which accepts UK pounds sterling (GBP), US Dollars (USD) and Euros (EUR).[2]
UK Postcode                  SIQQ 1ZZ

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (SGSSI) is a British Overseas Territory in the southern Atlantic Ocean. It is a remote and inhospitable collection of islands, consisting of South Georgia and a chain of smaller islands known as the South Sandwich Islands. South Georgia is 165 km (103 mi) long and 35 km (22 mi) wide^[3] and is by far the largest island in the territory. The South Sandwich Islands lie about 700 km (430 mi) southeast of South Georgia.^[3] The territory's total land area is 3,903 km² (1,507 sq mi).^[4] The Falkland Islands are about 1,300 km (810 mi) north-west from its nearest point.

No permanent native population lives in the territory although a very small non-permanent population does reside in South Georgia.^[5] The present inhabitants are three officers of the Government of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands along with scientists and support staff from the British Antarctic Survey who maintain scientific bases at Bird Island and at the capital, King Edward Point along with postal staff, as well as three museum staff at Grytviken. With an estimated minimum non-permanent population of around sixteen people in the winter months to a maximum of around thirty five people in the summer months it is the least populated of all the British Overseas Territories. There are no scheduled passenger flights or ferries to or from the territory, although visits by cruise liners to South Georgia are increasingly popular, with several thousand visitors each summer.

The United Kingdom claimed sovereignty over South Georgia in 1775 and the South Sandwich Islands in 1908. The territory of "South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands" was formed in 1985; previously, it had been governed as part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies. Argentina claimed South Georgia in 1927 and claimed the South Sandwich Islands in 1938.

Argentina maintained a naval station, Corbeta Uruguay, on Thule Island in the South Sandwich Islands from 1976 until 1982 when it was closed by the Royal Navy. The Argentine claim over South Georgia contributed to the 1982 Falklands War, during which Argentine forces briefly occupied the island. Argentina continues to claim sovereignty over South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

Toothfish are vital to the islands' economy; as a result, Toothfish Day is celebrated on 4 September as a bank holiday in the territory.^[6][7]

Contents

• 
  1 History
  
  
  
  • 
    1.1 South Georgia
    
    
    
    • 
      1.1.1 17th–19th centuries
      
    
    
    • 
      1.1.2 20th and 21st centuries
      
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • 
    1.2 South Sandwich Islands
    
  
  
  
  


• 
  2 Geography
  
  
  
  • 
    2.1 South Georgia group
    
    
    
    • 
      2.1.1 Islands within the South Georgia group
      
    
    
    
    
  
  
  • 
    2.2 South Sandwich Islands
    
  
  
  • 
    2.3 Extreme points
    
  
  
  
  


• 
  3 Climate
  


• 
  4 Government
  


• 
  5 Economy
  
  
  
  • 
    5.1 Fishing
    
  
  
  • 
    5.2 Tourism
    
  
  
  • 
    5.3 Postage stamps
    
  
  
  • 
    5.4 Currency
    
  
  
  • 
    5.5 Internet domain registration
    
  
  
  
  


• 
  6 Flora and fauna
  
  
  
  • 
    6.1 Plants
    
  
  
  • 
    6.2 Birds
    
  
  
  • 
    6.3 Mammals
    
  
  
  • 
    6.4 Marine ecosystem
    
  
  
  
  


• 
  7 Military
  


• 
  8 See also
  


• 
  9 References
  


• 
  10 Further reading
  


• 
  11 External links
  

History

Main article: History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

South Georgia

17th–19th centuries

South Georgia Island

Central South Georgia Cumberland Bay – Thatcher Peninsula with King Edward Cove (Grytviken) – Allardyce Range, featuring the summit of Mount Paget. (NASA imagery)
Map by James Cook (1777, south facing upwards)
Geography
Location	Antarctic
Highest elevation	2,934 m (9,626 ft)
Highest point	Mount Paget
Administration
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Demographics
Ethnic groups	Britons

The Island of South Georgia is said to have been first sighted in 1675 by Anthony de la Roché, a London merchant,^[8] and was named Roche Island on a number of early maps.^{[citation needed]} It was sighted by the commercial Spanish ship León operating out of Saint-Malo on 28 June or 29 June 1756.^[9] At one time it was confused with Pepys Island, which was "discovered" by Dampier and Cowley in 1683 but later proved to be a phantom island.^{[citation needed]}

Captain James Cook circumnavigated the island in 1775 and made the first landing. He claimed the territory for the Kingdom of Great Britain, and named it "the Isle of Georgia" in honour of King George III. British arrangements for the government of South Georgia were established under the 1843 British Letters Patent.

In 1882–1883, a German expedition for the First International Polar Year was stationed at Royal Bay on the southeast side of the island. The scientists of this group observed the transit of Venus and recorded waves produced by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa.

Seal hunting at South Georgia began in 1786 and continued throughout the 19th century. The waters proved treacherous and a number of vessels were wrecked there, such as Earl Spencer, in late 1801.^[10]

20th and 21st centuries

South Georgia became a base for whaling beginning in the 20th century, until whaling ended in the 1960s. A Norwegian, Carl Anton Larsen, established the first land-based whaling station and first permanent habitation at Grytviken in 1904. It operated through his Argentine Fishing Company, which settled in Grytviken.^[11][9] The station operated until 1965.

Whaling stations operated under leases granted by the (British) Governor of the Falkland Islands. The seven stations, all on the north coast with its sheltered harbours, were, from the west to east:

• 
  Prince Olav Harbour (from 1911–1916 factory ship and small land-based station 1917–1931)


• 
  Leith Harbour (1909–1965)


• 
  Stromness (from 1907 factory ship, land-based station 1913–1931, repair yard to 1960/1961)


• 
  Husvik (from 1907 factory ship, land-based station 1910–1960, not in operation 1930–1945)


• 
  Grytviken (1904–1964)


• 
  Godthul (1908–1929, only a rudimentary land base, main operations on factory ship)


• 
  Ocean Harbour (1909–1920)

The whaling stations' tryworks were unpleasant and dangerous places to work. One was called "a charnel house boiling wholesale in vaseline" by an early 20th-century visitor. Tim Flannery wrote that its "putrid vapors [resembled] the pong of bad fish, manure, and a tanning works mixed together", and noted one bizarre peril: "A rotting whale could fill with gas to bursting, ejecting a fetus the size of a motor vehicle with sufficient force to kill a man."^[12] (See Coffin birth and Exploding whale)

With the end of the whaling industry, the stations were abandoned. Apart from a few preserved buildings such as the museum and church at Grytviken, only their decaying remains survive.

From 1905, the Argentine Meteorological Office cooperated in maintaining a meteorological observatory at Grytviken under the British lease requirements of the whaling station until these changed in 1949.

The church at Grytviken

A panoramic view of South Georgia taken by Frank Hurley during the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

In 1908, the United Kingdom issued further letters patent that established constitutional arrangements for its possessions in the South Atlantic. The letters covered South Georgia, the South Orkneys, the South Shetlands, the South Sandwich Islands, and Graham Land. (The claim was extended in 1917 to include a sector of Antarctica reaching to the South Pole.)

In 1909, an administrative centre and residence were established at King Edward Point on South Georgia, near the whaling station of Grytviken. A permanent local British administration and resident magistrate exercised effective possession, enforcement of British law, and regulation of all economic, scientific, and other activities in the territory, which was then governed as the Falkland Islands Dependencies.

In about 1912, what is according to some accounts the largest whale ever caught, a blue whale of 34 m (110 ft), was landed at Grytviken.^[13][14]

In April 1916, Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition became stranded on Elephant Island, some 800 mi (1,300 km) southwest of South Georgia. Shackleton and five companions set out in a small boat to summon help, and on 10 May, after an epic voyage, they landed at King Haakon Bay on South Georgia's south coast. While three stayed at the coast, Shackleton and the two others, Tom Crean and Frank Worsley, went on to cover 22 mi (35 km) over the spine of the mountainous island to reach help at Stromness whaling station. The remaining 22 members of the expedition, who had stayed on Elephant Island, were subsequently rescued. In January 1922, during a later expedition, Shackleton died on board ship while moored in King Edward Cove, South Georgia. He is buried at Grytviken. The ashes of another noted Antarctic explorer, Frank Wild, who had been Shackleton's second-in-command on the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, were interred next to Shackleton in 2011.

Argentina claimed South Georgia in 1927.^[15]

Historical and modern settlements of South Georgia Island

During the Second World War, the Royal Navy deployed an armed merchant vessel to patrol South Georgian and Antarctic waters against German raiders, along with two four-inch shore guns (still present) protecting Cumberland Bay and Stromness Bay, which were manned by volunteers from among the Norwegian whalers. The base at King Edward Point was expanded as a research facility in 1949/1950 by the British Antarctic Survey, which until 1962 was called the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey.

Topography of South Georgia Island

The Falklands War was precipitated on 19 March 1982 when a group of Argentinians (most of them Argentine Marines in mufti), posing as scrap-metal merchants, occupied the abandoned whaling station at Leith Harbour on South Georgia. On 3 April, the Argentine troops attacked and occupied Grytviken. Among the commanding officers of the Argentine garrison was Alfredo Astiz, a captain in the Argentine Navy who was convicted years later of crimes against humanity committed during the Dirty War in Argentina.

The island was recaptured by British forces on 25 April in Operation Paraquet. In 1985, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ceased to be administered as a Falkland Islands Dependency and became a separate territory. The King Edward Point base, which had become a small military garrison after the Falklands War, returned to civilian use in 2001 and is now operated by the British Antarctic Survey.

South Sandwich Islands

Captain James Cook discovered the southern eight islands of the Sandwich Islands Group in 1775, although he lumped the southernmost three together, and their status as separate islands was not established until 1820 by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen.^[16] The northern three islands were discovered by Bellingshausen in 1819. The islands were tentatively named "Sandwich Land" by Cook, although he also commented that they might be a group of islands rather than a single body of land. The name was chosen in honour of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, First Lord of the Admiralty. The word "South" was later added to distinguish them from the "Sandwich Islands", now known as the Hawaiian Islands.

Argentina claimed the South Sandwich Islands in 1938, and challenged British sovereignty in the Islands on several occasions. From 25 January 1955 to mid-1956, Argentina maintained the summer station Teniente Esquivel at Ferguson Bay on the southeastern coast of Thule Island. Argentina maintained a naval base (Corbeta Uruguay) from 1976 to 1982, in the lee (southern east coast) of the same island. Although the British discovered the presence of the Argentine base in 1976,^[17] protested and tried to resolve the issue by diplomatic means, no effort was made to remove them by force until after the Falklands War. The base was removed on 20 June 1982.

On 10 February 2008, a 6.5 magnitude earthquake had its epicentre 205 km (127 mi; 111 nmi) south-southeast of Bristol Island.^[18] On 30 June 2008 at 06:17:53 UTC, a 7.0-magnitude earthquake struck the region. Its epicentre was at 58.160S 21.893W, 283 km (176 mi; 153 nmi) ENE (73 degrees) of Bristol Island.^[19] The United States Geological Survey reported that a 7.3-magnitude earthquake had occurred at 10:04 EDT on 15 Jul 2013, 216 km (134 mi; 117 nmi) south-southeast of Bristol Island, South Sandwich Islands, at a depth of 31.3 km (19.4 mi). The epicentre was located 2,230 km (1,390 mi; 1,200 nmi) southeast of Stanley, Falkland Islands.^[20]

Geography

CIA map of the islands

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are a collection of islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. Most of the islands, rising steeply from the sea, are rugged and mountainous. At higher elevations, the islands are permanently covered with ice and snow.

South Georgia group

The South Georgia group lies about 1,390 km (864 mi; 751 nmi) east-southeast of the Falkland Islands, at 54°–55°S, 36°–38°W. It comprises South Georgia Island itself (by far the largest island in the territory), and the islands that immediately surround it and some remote and isolated islets to the west and east-southeast. It has a total land area of 3,756 km² (1,450 sq mi), including satellite islands (but excluding the South Sandwich Islands which form a separate island group).

Islands within the South Georgia group

South Georgia Island lies at 54°15′S 36°45′W / 54.250°S 36.750°W / -54.250; -36.750Coordinates: 54°15′S 36°45′W / 54.250°S 36.750°W / -54.250; -36.750 and has an area of 3,528 km² (1,362 sq mi). It is mountainous and largely barren. Eleven peaks rise to over 2,000 m (6,562 ft) high, their slopes furrowed with deep gorges filled with glaciers; the largest is Fortuna Glacier. The highest peak is Mount Paget in the Allardyce Range at 2,934 m (9,626 ft).

Geologically, the island consists of gneiss and argillaceous schists with occasional tufts and other sedimentary layers from which fossils have been recovered.^[21] The island is a fragment of some greater land-mass now vanished and was probably a former extension of the Andean system.

Smaller islands and islets off the coast of South Georgia Island include:

View of Grytviken

• Annenkov Island


• Bird Island


• Cooper Island


• Grass Island


• Jomfruene


• Pickersgill Islands


• Welcome Islands


• Willis Islands


• Trinity Island

These remote rocks are also considered part of the South Georgia group:

• 
  Shag Rocks 185 km (115 mi; 100 nmi) west-northwest of South Georgia Island


• 
  Black Rock 169 km (105 mi; 91 nmi) west-northwest of South Georgia Island and 16 km (9.9 mi; 8.6 nmi) southeast of the Shag Rocks


• 
  Clerke Rocks 56 km (35 mi; 30 nmi) east-southeast of South Georgia Island

South Sandwich Islands

NASA satellite photograph of Montagu Island

The South Sandwich Islands (Spanish: Islas Sandwich del Sur) comprise 11 mostly volcanic islands (excluding tiny satellite islands and offshore rocks), with some active volcanoes. They form an island arc running north-south in the region 56°18'–59°27'S, 26°23'–28°08'W, between about 350 and 500 mi (300 and 430 nmi; 560 and 800 km) southeast of South Georgia.

The northernmost of the South Sandwich Islands form the Traversay Islands and Candlemas Islands groups, while the southernmost make up Southern Thule. The three largest islands – Saunders, Montagu, and Bristol – lie between the two. The Islands' highest point is Mount Belinda (1,370 m or 4,495 ft) on Montagu Island.

The South Sandwich Islands are uninhabited, though a permanently manned Argentine research station was located on Thule Island from 1976 to 1982 (for details, see § History above). Automatic weather stations are on Thule Island and Zavodovski. To the northwest of Zavodovski Island is the Protector Shoal, a submarine volcano.

Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap

Download coordinates as: KML · GPX

The South Sandwich Islands from north to south are:

Island (Spanish name)	Area	Highest peak	Location
Traversay Islands
Protector Shoal	—	−27 m (−89 ft)	55°54′S 28°06′W / 55.900°S 28.100°W / -55.900; -28.100 (Protector Shoal)
Zavodovski	25 km2 (9.7 sq mi)	Mount Asphyxia 550 m (1,800 ft)	56°18′S 27°34′W / 56.300°S 27.567°W / -56.300; -27.567 (Zavodovski)
Leskov	0.3 km2 (0.12 sq mi)	Rudder Point 190 m (620 ft)	56°40′S 28°08′W / 56.667°S 28.133°W / -56.667; -28.133 (Leskov)
Visokoi	35 km2 (14 sq mi)	Mount Hodson 915 m (3,002 ft)	56°42′S 27°13′W / 56.700°S 27.217°W / -56.700; -27.217 (Visokoi)
Candlemas Islands (sometimes included with Traversay Islands)
Candlemas (Candelaria)	14 km2 (5.4 sq mi)	Mount Andromeda 550 m (1,800 ft)	57°05′S 26°39′W / 57.083°S 26.650°W / -57.083; -26.650 (Candlemas)
Vindication (Vindicación)	5 km2 (1.9 sq mi)	Quadrant Peak 430 m (1,410 ft)	57°06′S 26°47′W / 57.100°S 26.783°W / -57.100; -26.783 (Vindication)
Central islands
Saunders	40 km2 (15 sq mi)	Mount Michael 990 m (3,250 ft)	57°48′S 26°28′W / 57.800°S 26.467°W / -57.800; -26.467 (Saunders)
Montagu (Jorge)	110 km2 (42 sq mi)	Mount Belinda 1,370 m (4,490 ft)	58°25′S 26°23′W / 58.417°S 26.383°W / -58.417; -26.383 (Montagu)
Bristol (Blanca)	46 km2 (18 sq mi)	Mount Darnley 1,100 m (3,600 ft)	59°03′S 26°30′W / 59.050°S 26.500°W / -59.050; -26.500 (Bristol)
Southern Thule (Tule del Sur)
Bellingshausen	1 km2 (0.39 sq mi)	Basilisk Peak 255 m (837 ft)	59°25′S 27°05′W / 59.417°S 27.083°W / -59.417; -27.083 (Bellingshausen)
Cook	20 km2 (7.7 sq mi)	Mount Harmer 1,115 m (3,658 ft)	59°26′S 27°09′W / 59.433°S 27.150°W / -59.433; -27.150 (Cook)
Thule (or Morrell) Island	14 km2 (5.4 sq mi)	Mount Larsen 710 m (2,330 ft)	59°27′S 27°18′W / 59.450°S 27.300°W / -59.450; -27.300 (Thule)
Vysokaya Bank	—	−89 m (−292 ft)	59°43′S 27°58′W / 59.717°S 27.967°W / -59.717; -27.967 (Vysokaya Bank)
South Sandwich Islands (entire)	310 km2 (120 sq mi)	Mount Belinda 1,370 m (4,490 ft)

A series of six passages separates each of the islands or island groups in the chain. They are, from north to south: Zavodovski Isl. – Traverse passage – Visokoi Isl. – Brown's passage – Candlemas Isl. – Shackleton's passage – Saunders Isl. – Larsen's passage – Montagu Isl. – Biscoe's passage – Bristol Isl. – Forsters Passage – Southern Thule. Nelson Channel is the passage between Candlemas and Vindication Island.

Extreme points

• Northernmost point – Cape North
  


• Southernmost point – on Cook Island
  


• Westernmost point – on Main Island (of the Willis Islands)


• Easternmost point – on Montagu Island
  


• Highest point – Mount Paget: 2,934 m


• Lowest point – Atlantic Ocean: 0

Climate

NASA satellite image of South Georgia Island covered with snow

The South Sandwich Islands connect with air currents to make wave patterns in clouds.

Royal Bay and South Georgia Island

The climate is classified as polar, and the weather is highly variable and harsh; making a tundra (ET) in Köppen climate classification. Typical daily maximum temperatures in South Georgia at sea level are around 0 °C (32 °F) in winter (August) and 8 °C (46.4 °F) in summer (January). Winter minimum temperatures are typically about −5 °C (23 °F) and rarely dip below −10 °C (14 °F). Annual precipitation in South Georgia is about 1,500 mm (59.1 in), much of which falls as sleet or snow, which is possible the entire year. Inland, the snow line in summer is at an altitude of about 300 m (984 ft).

Westerly winds blow throughout the year interspersed with periods of calm—indeed, in 1963, 25% of winds were in the calm category at King Edward point, and the mean wind speed of around 8 knots (9.2 mph; 15 km/h) is around half that of the Falkland Islands. This gives the eastern side of South Georgia (leeward side) a more pleasant climate than the exposed western side. The prevailing weather conditions generally make the islands difficult to approach by ship, though the north coast of South Georgia has several large bays which provide good anchorage.

Sunshine, as with many South Atlantic Islands, is low, at a maximum of just 21.5%. This amounts to around 1,000 hours of sunshine annually. The local topography, however, also contributes significantly to the low insolation. A study published during the early 1960s^[22] indicated that sunshine recording instruments remained significantly obscured throughout the year and entirely obscured during June. It was estimated that the theoretical sunshine exposure minus obstructions would be around 14% at Bird Island and 35% at King Edward Point – or, in hourly terms, ranging from around 650 hours in the west to 1,500 hours in the east. This illustrates the effect the Allardyce range has in breaking up cloud cover.

Mountain winds blow straight up the western side and straight down the eastern side of the mountains and become much warmer and drier due to the Föhn effect; this produces the most pleasant conditions when temperatures can occasionally rise over 20 °C (68 °F) on summer days. The highest recorded temperature was 28.8 °C (83.8 °F) at Grytviken.^[23] and 26.3 °C (79.3 °F) at nearby King Edward point, both on the sheltered east side of the Islands. Conversely, the highest recorded temperature at Bird Island on the windward western side is a mere 14.5 °C (58.1 °F). As one might expect, the sheltered eastern side can also record lower winter temperatures—the absolute minimum for Grytviken being −19.4 °C (−2.9 °F), King Edward Point −18.9 °C (−2.0 °F), but Bird Island just −11.4 °C (11.5 °F).

The seas surrounding South Georgia are cold throughout the year due to the proximity of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. They usually remain free of pack ice in winter, though thin ice may form in sheltered bays, and icebergs are common.^[24] Sea temperatures drop to 0 °C (32 °F) in late August and rise to around 4 °C (39.2 °F) only in early April.

The South Sandwich Islands are much colder than South Georgia, being farther south and more exposed to cold outbreaks from the Antarctic continent. They are also surrounded by sea ice from the middle of May to late November (even longer at their southern end).^[25] Recorded temperature extremes at South Thule Island have ranged from −29.8 to 17.7 °C (−21.6 to 63.9 °F).

Climate data for Bird Island, South Georgia, 1961–1990
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Average high °C (°F)	5.5 (41.9)	5.6 (42.1)	4.4 (39.9)	1.9 (35.4)	−0.5 (31.1)	−1.8 (28.8)	−2.4 (27.7)	−1.9 (28.6)	−0.2 (31.6)	1.6 (34.9)	3.4 (38.1)	4.5 (40.1)	1.7 (35.0)
Average low °C (°F)	0.7 (33.3)	1.4 (34.5)	0.6 (33.1)	−1 (30)	−3.8 (25.2)	−4.6 (23.7)	−5.4 (22.3)	−4.8 (23.4)	−3.4 (25.9)	−1.9 (28.6)	−1.5 (29.3)	−0.6 (30.9)	−2.0 (28.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	84 (3.3)	80 (3.1)	95 (3.7)	123 (4.8)	108 (4.3)	108 (4.3)	120 (4.7)	114 (4.5)	107 (4.2)	98 (3.9)	88 (3.5)	77 (3.0)	1,204 (47.4)
Source: Climatic Research Unit, UEA[26]

Climate data for Grytviken/King Edward Point, South Georgia, 1901–1950 (Sunshine 1931–1960)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Record high °C (°F)	24.5 (76.1)	26.5 (79.7)	28.8 (83.8)	19.1 (66.4)	17.5 (63.5)	14.0 (57.2)	13.6 (56.5)	13.2 (55.8)	17.0 (62.6)	20.0 (68.0)	22.5 (72.5)	21.5 (70.7)	28.8 (83.8)
Average high °C (°F)	8.4 (47.1)	9.1 (48.4)	8.4 (47.1)	5.6 (42.1)	2.9 (37.2)	0.9 (33.6)	1.2 (34.2)	1.5 (34.7)	3.5 (38.3)	5.4 (41.7)	6.5 (43.7)	7.5 (45.5)	5.1 (41.2)
Daily mean °C (°F)	4.6 (40.3)	5.1 (41.2)	4.4 (39.9)	2.3 (36.1)	0.0 (32.0)	−1.6 (29.1)	−1.5 (29.3)	−1.8 (28.8)	−0.1 (31.8)	1.6 (34.9)	2.7 (36.9)	3.7 (38.7)	1.6 (34.9)
Average low °C (°F)	1.4 (34.5)	1.7 (35.1)	1.0 (33.8)	−0.8 (30.6)	−3.1 (26.4)	−4.6 (23.7)	−4.7 (23.5)	−4.9 (23.2)	−3.3 (26.1)	−1.8 (28.8)	−0.5 (31.1)	0.4 (32.7)	−1.6 (29.1)
Record low °C (°F)	−4.1 (24.6)	−3.7 (25.3)	−6.3 (20.7)	−9.8 (14.4)	−11.4 (11.5)	−14.6 (5.7)	−15.2 (4.6)	−19.2 (−2.6)	−18.4 (−1.1)	−11 (12)	−6.4 (20.5)	−5.4 (22.3)	−19.2 (−2.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches)	92 (3.6)	114 (4.5)	136 (5.4)	139 (5.5)	137 (5.4)	135 (5.3)	149 (5.9)	149 (5.9)	92 (3.6)	80 (3.1)	93 (3.7)	88 (3.5)	1,394 (54.9)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)	12	13	14	14	12	15	15	14	11	12	11	11	154
Average relative humidity (%)	72	69	69	70	74	75	74	73	72	70	69	71	72
Mean monthly sunshine hours	152	160	127	66	34	12	22	74	123	171	174	167	1,282
Source #1: Globalbioclimatics/S.Rivas-Martínez[27]
Source #2: DMI/Danish Meteorology Institute (sun, humidity, and precipitation days 1931–1960)[28]

Government

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
This article is part of a series on the politics and government of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
The Crown Monarch Queen Elizabeth II
Government Commissioner Nigel Phillips Responsible Minister (UK) Tariq Ahmad
History Sovereignty dispute Falkland Islands Dependencies
South Georgia King Edward Point (capital) Grytviken Godthul Husvik Leith Harbour Ocean Harbour Prince Olav Harbour Rosita Harbour Stromness
South Sandwich Islands Bellingshausen Bristol Candlemas Cook Leskov Montagu Saunders Thule Vindication Visokoi Zavodovski Traversay Islands Corbeta Uruguay base
Research Stations British Antarctic Survey King Edward Point Bird Island
Other Flag Languages Postal History
Other countries Atlas
v t e

Executive power is vested in the Monarch of the United Kingdom and is exercised by the commissioner, a post held by the Governor of the Falkland Islands. The current commissioner is Nigel Phillips, who became commissioner on 12 September 2017. A chief executive officer (Martin Collins) deals with policy matters and is director of SGSSI Fisheries, responsible for the allocation of fishing licences. An executive officer (Richard McKee) deals with administrative matters relating to the territory. Also, an environmental officer (Jennifer Lee) and a marine and Fisheries officer (Katherine Ross) are appointed. The financial secretary and attorney general of the territory are appointed ex officio similar appointments in the Falkland Islands' government.

As no permanent inhabitants live on the islands, no legislative council and no elections are needed. The UK Foreign Office manages the foreign relations of the territory. Since 1982, the territory celebrates Liberation Day on 14 June.

The constitution of the territory (adopted 3 October 1985), the manner in which its government is directed and the availability of judicial review were discussed in a series of litigations between 2001 and 2005 (see, in particular, Regina v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (Appellant) ex parte Quark Fishing Limited [2005] UKHL 57^[29]). Although its government is entirely directed by the UK Foreign Office, it was held that, since it was acting as an agent of the Crown in right of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands rather than in right of the UK, its decisions under that direction could not be challenged as if they were in law decisions of a UK government department;^{[clarification needed]} thus the European Convention on Human Rights did not apply.

Economy

Commercial sealing occurred on the islands between 1817 and 1909. During that period 20 visits are recorded by sealing vessels.^[30]

Economic activity in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is limited. The territory has revenues of £4.5 million, 80% of which is derived from fishing licences (2011 figures).^[31] Other sources of revenue are the sale of postage stamps and coins, tourism and customs and harbour dues.^[32]

Fishing

Fishing takes place around South Georgia and in adjacent waters in some months of the year, with fishing licences sold by the territory for Patagonian toothfish, cod icefish and krill. Fishing licences bring in millions of pounds a year, most of which is spent on fishery protection and research. All fisheries are regulated and managed in accordance with the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) system.

In 2001 the South Georgia government was cited by the Marine Stewardship Council for its sustainable Patagonian toothfish fishery, certifying that South Georgia met the MSC's environmental standards. The certificate places limits on the timing and quantity of Patagonian toothfish that may be caught.^[33]

Tourism

Tourism has become a larger source of income in recent years, with many cruise ships and sailing yachts visiting the area (the only way to visit South Georgia is by sea; there are no airstrips on the Islands). The territory gains income from landing charges and the sale of souvenirs. Cruise ships often combine a Grytviken visit with a trip to the Antarctic Peninsula.

Charter yacht visits usually begin in the Falkland Islands, last between four and six weeks, and enable guests to visit remote harbours of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Sailing vessels are now required to anchor out and can no longer tie up to the old whaling piers on shore. One exception to this is the recently upgraded/repaired yacht berth at Grytviken. All other jetties at former whaling stations lie inside a 200 m (656 ft) exclusion zone; and berthing, or putting ropes ashore, at these is forbidden. Yachts visiting South Georgia are normally expected to report to the Government Officers at King Edward Point before moving round the island.

Postage stamps

Main article: Postage stamps and postal history of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

This postage stamp depicting a fin whale was issued in 1963.

A large source of income from abroad also comes from the issue of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands postage stamps which are produced in the UK.

A reasonable issue policy (few sets of stamps are issued each year) along with attractive subject matter (especially whales) makes them popular with topical stamp collectors.

There are only four genuine first day cover sets from 16 March 1982 in existence. They were stamped at the South Georgia Post Office; all those in circulation were stamped elsewhere and sent out, but the only genuine ones were kept at the Post Office on South Georgia. These four sets were removed during the Falklands War by a member of staff of the British Antarctic Survey in the few moments the Argentinians allowed them to gather their belongings. Everything else was burnt, but these four sets were saved and brought to the UK by Robert Headland, BAS.

Currency

The pound sterling is the official currency of the islands, and the same notes and coins are used as in the United Kingdom. For more information on British currency in the wider region, see Pound sterling in the South Atlantic and the Antarctic.

Internet domain registration

The Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is .gs. Although the territory has no permanent residents, the domain suffix has some popularity for website registrations, with approximately 6 million instances as of November 2018.^[34]

Flora and fauna

Southern giant petrel on South Georgia Island

A colony of 200,000 king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) on Salisbury Plain

King penguins at St Andrews Bay, South Georgia Island, 1996

Plants

The parts of the islands that are not permanently covered in snow or ice are part of the Scotia Sea Islands tundra ecoregion. In total there are 26 species of vascular plant native to South Georgia; six species of grass, four rushes, a single sedge, six ferns, one clubmoss and nine small forbs. There are also about 125 species of moss, 85 of liverworts and 150 lichens, as well as about 50 species of macrofungi.^[35] A number of introduced species have become naturalised; many of these were introduced by whalers in cattle fodder, and some are considered invasive.^[36] There are no trees or shrubs on the islands.^[37]

The largest plant is the tussock grass Poa flabellata. This grows mostly on raised beaches and steep slopes near the shore and may reach 2 m (7 ft). Other grasses include the tufted fescue (Festuca contracta), the Alpine cat's-tail (Phleum alpinum) and Antarctic hair-grass (Deschampsia antarctica), and one of the commonest flowering plants is the greater burnet (Acaena magellanica).^[35]

Birds

South Georgia supports many sea birds, including albatross, a large colony of king penguins, Macaroni penguins^[38] and penguins of various other species, along with petrels, prions, shags, skuas, gulls and terns. Birds unique to the archipelago are the South Georgia shag, South Georgia pipit, and the South Georgia pintail. Both South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands have been identified as Important Bird Areas (IBA) by BirdLife International.^[39]

Mammals

Wikispecies has information related to South Georgia Island nonmarine fauna

Seals frequent the islands, and whales may be seen in the surrounding waters. There are no native land mammals, though reindeer, brown rats and mice were introduced to South Georgia through human activities.

Rats, brought to the island as stowaways on sealing and whaling ships in the late 18th century,^[40] have caused much damage to native wildlife, destroying tens of millions of ground-nesting birds' eggs and chicks. While previously the island's glaciers formed a natural barrier to the spread of rats, these glaciers are now slowly melting as the climate warms.^[41] In 2011, scientists instituted a four-year programme to entirely eradicate the rats and mice, in what would be by far the largest rodent eradication attempt in the world to date.^[42][43][44] The project was led by zoologist Anthony Martin of The University of Dundee who stated, "This is a man-induced problem and it's about time that man put right earlier errors."^[45] In July 2013, the success of the main phase of the extermination of the rats, which took place in May that year, was announced. 180 tonnes of rat poison, brodifacoum, were dropped over 70% of the island, in what was the world's largest ever operation of this kind.^[46] Another 95t of rat poison was planned to be dropped by three helicopters in January 2015.^[47] In June 2015 the eradication programme concluded, apparently successfully, with the island believed "very likely" to be rat free. In 2017/18, an intensive 6-month search by the South Georgia Heritage Trust, using sniffer dogs and baited traps, found no evidence of rodent presence.^[48] Monitoring will continue for a further two or three years.^[49]

Reindeer were introduced to South Georgia in 1911 by Norwegian whalers for meat and for sport hunting. In February 2011, the authorities announced that due to the reindeer's detrimental effect on native species and the threat of their spreading to presently pristine areas, a complete cull would take place, leading to the eradication of reindeer from the island.^[50] The eradication began in 2013 with 3,500 reindeer killed. Nearly all the rest were killed in early 2014, with the last (about 50) cleared in the 2014/15 southern summer.^[51]

Marine ecosystem

The seas around South Georgia have a high level of biodiversity. In a recent study (2009–2011), South Georgia has been discovered to contain one of the highest levels of biodiversity among all the ecosystems on Earth.^[52] In respect to species, marine inhabitants endemic to this ecosystem outnumber and (in respect to biodiversity) surpass well-known regions such as the Galápagos or Ecuador.^[53] The marine ecosystem is thought to be vulnerable because its low temperatures mean that it can repair itself only very slowly.^[54] On 23 February 2012, to protect marine biodiversity, the territory's government created the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area – comprising 1.07 million km² (410,000 sq mi).^[55][56][57]

Wandering albatross at South Georgia Island

Antarctic Pearlwort at St. Andrews Bay, South Georgia

South Georgia glacier and penguin colony

Military

HMS Protector

Main article: Military of the Falkland Islands

After the Falklands War in 1982, a full-time British military presence was maintained at King Edward Point on South Georgia. This was scaled down during the 1990s until the last detachment left South Georgia in March 2001, after a new station had been built and occupied by the British Antarctic Survey.^[58]

The main British military facility in the region is at RAF Mount Pleasant and the adjacent Mare Harbour naval base on East Falkland, and three Remote Radar Heads on the Falklands: RRH Mount Kent, RRH Byron Heights and RRH Mount Alice. A handful of British naval vessels patrol the region, visiting South Georgia a few times each year and sometimes deploying small infantry patrols. Flights by RAF C-130 Hercules and Vickers VC10 (replaced by Voyager) aircraft also occasionally patrol the territory.

A Royal Navy destroyer or frigate and a Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessel carry out the Atlantic Patrol Task (South) mission in the surrounding area.

HMS Endurance, the Royal Navy ice-patrol ship, operated in the South Georgia area during part of most southern summer seasons until her near loss due to flooding in 2008. She carried out hydrological and mapping work as well as assisting with scientific fieldwork for the British Antarctic Survey, film and photographic units, and youth expedition group BSES Expeditions. While the final decision on the fate of Endurance was pending, the Royal Navy chartered a Norwegian icebreaker, renamed HMS Protector, to act as replacement for three years.^[59] In September 2013 the British Ministry of Defence purchased the ship outright.^[60] It was announced on 7 October 2013 that Endurance would be sold for scrap.^[61]

See also

• 
  Geography portal
  


• 
  South America portal
  


• 
  United Kingdom portal
  

• Bibliography of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands


• British Overseas Territories


• Index of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands-related articles


• List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands


• Lists of islands


• 
  South Orkney Islands – A group of islands in the Southern Ocean north-east of the Antarctic Peninsula


• 
  South Shetland Islands – A group of islands north of the Antarctic Peninsula

References

1. 
   ^ Tony Wheeler (2004). The Falklands & South Georgia Island. Lonely Planet. pp. 172–. ISBN 978-1-74059-643-5..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
   


2. 
   ^ "Foreign travel advice South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands". UK Government. Retrieved 1 November 2016.
   


3. 
   ^ ^ab "Google Maps".
   


4. 
   ^ South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, CIA World Factbook, 2002.
   


5. 
   ^ "South Georgia & the South Sandwich Islands – Current Status". Government of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (GSGSSI). Retrieved 31 May 2016. There are no permanent residents in the Territory but the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) operates two bases on South Georgia. The base at King Edward Point (KEP) is operated under contract to GSGSSI and the FCO and is staffed by eight BAS personnel, plus three GSGSSI Officers and their spouses. Bird Island has a year round complement of four BAS personnel who undertake long-term monitoring of seabirds and marine mammals. The South Sandwich Islands are uninhabited, though an originally undetected, and subsequently allowed, manned Argentinean research station was located on Thule from 1976 to 1982.
   


6. 
   ^ http://en.mercopress.com/2015/09/04/toothfish-day-celebration-in-south-georgia-and-south-sandwich-islands
   


7. 
   ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GlnegoEzeL0
   


8. 
   ^ Carroll, Paul. "The Living Edens -- South Georgia Island -- Ice and Isolation". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
   


9. 
   ^ ^ab "Iberoamerica – Bienvenido --". Archived from the original on 2012-06-29.
   


10. 
    ^ Wheeler (2004), pp.26–27.
    


11. 
    ^ La Infanteria de Marina en el conflicto del Atlántico Sur, Jorge Alberto Erecaborde. The original quote in Spanish is: "La Compañia Argentina de Pesca SA, al amparo de las leyes argentinas y bajo su bandera, se instala en Grytviken".
    


12. 
    ^ "On the Minds of the Whales" by Tim Flannery, NYRB, 9 February 2012
    


13. 
    ^ The Island of South Georgia, The Whaling Museum, Sandefjord, Norway Archived 16 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
    


14. 
    ^ Whaling, South Georgia Heritage Trust Archived 12 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine
    


15. 
    ^ Headland, R. K. The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 238.
    


16. 
    ^ Mills, William James. Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 2, p. 157, 2003.
    


17. 
    ^ Lawrence Freedman (2005). The Official History of the Falklands Campaign: The origins of the Falklands war. Psychology Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-7146-5206-1.
    


18. 
    ^ 2008 February 10: Magnitude 6.5 – South Sandwich Islands region: USGS Archived 1 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine
    


19. 
    ^ Earthquake Hazards Program Archived 16 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine at U.S. Geological Survey
    


20. 
    ^ Summary of earthquake 2013-07-15 14:03:43 UTC at U.S. Geological Survey
    


21. 
    ^ Trendall, A. 1953 The Geology of South Georgia. Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey: Scientific Reports: Number 7. pdf
    


22. 
    ^ "British Antarctic Survey" (PDF). British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
    


23. 
    ^ "Extreme Temperatures Around the World- world highest lowest recorded temperatures".
    


24. 
    ^ "South Georgia official website – environment – ocean".
    


25. 
    ^ General Survey of Climatology V12, 2001, Edited by Landsberg, Elsevier publishing
    


26. 
    ^ "Climate Normals". Climatic Research Unit, UEA. July 2011. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
    


27. 
    ^ "Temp/Rain 1901–1950" (PDF). Globalbioclimatics. Apr 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
    


28. 
    ^ Cappelen, John; Jensen, Jens. "South Geogria–Grytviken" (PDF). Climate Data for Selected Stations (1931-1960) (in Danish). Danish Meteorological Institute. p. 242. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 27, 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
    


29. 
    ^ "Quark Fishing Ltd, R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs [2005] UKHL 57 (13 October 2005)".
    


30. 
    ^ R.K. Headland (ed.) Historical Antarctic sealing industry, Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, 2018, p.169
    ISBN 978-0-901021-26-7
    


31. 
    ^ Commonwealth Secretariat website Archived 20 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine
    


32. 
    ^ "Healthy Surplus in South Georgia Finances, Spurred by Fishing, Tourism and Stamps". MercoPress. May 12, 2010. Retrieved January 19, 2017.
    


33. 
    ^ Whole Foods Market (2006), Welcome Back Chilean Sea Bass!, Whole Foods Market
    


34. 
    ^ Retrieved 11/5/2018
    


35. 
    ^ ^ab Headland, Robert (1992). The Island of South Georgia. CUP Archive. pp. 195–197. ISBN 978-0-521-42474-5.
    


36. 
    ^ "South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands". Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford. 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
    


37. 
    ^ "Native flora – South Georgia Heritage Trust".
    


38. 
    ^ Attenborough, D. 1998. The Life of Birds. BBC Books.
    ISBN 0563-38792-0
    


39. 
    ^ "South Georgia & the South Sandwich Islands". BirdLife International. 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
    


40. 
    ^ "Eradication of Rodents". South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands. Archived from the original on 3 August 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
    


41. 
    ^ "Climate Change – Overview". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2013.
    


42. 
    ^ Hastings, Chris (7 March 2010). "South Georgia to poison millions of rats". Times Online. London.
    


43. 
    ^ Connor, Steve (8 March 2010). "Ecologists turn exterminators in the great rat hunt". The Independent. London.
    


44. 
    ^ Amos, Jonathan (4 May 2011). "'Success' in South Georgia rat eradication". BBC.
    


45. 
    ^ Hogenboom, Melissa (4 July 2013). "South Georgia rat removal hits milestone". BBC News. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
    


46. 
    ^ Cookson, Clive (3 July 2013). "Rats removed from South Georgia in biggest mass poisoning". Financial Times.
    


47. 
    ^ Sarsfield, Kate (3 December 2014), "Habitat Restoration Project gears up for final phase of airborne rodent eradication programme", Flightglobal, Reed Business Information, retrieved 4 December 2014
    


48. 
    ^ "Rats driven from South Georgia's wildlife paradise", BBC Website, 9 May 2018
    


49. 
    ^ "Rare birds return to remote South Georgia island after successful rat eradication programme", The Independent, 25 June 2015
    


50. 
    ^ Management of introduced reindeer on South Georgia Archived 16 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Office of the Commissioner, 19 February 2011.
    


51. 
    ^ Doyle, Alister (18 March 2013). "Hunters slay 3,500 reindeer on island near Antarctica". Reuters.
    


52. 
    ^ "Which has more biodiversity, the Galápagos or the sub-Antarctic island South Georgia? Surprise, surprise". George Wright Society. 25 May 2011. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
    


53. 
    ^ Merco Press (27 May 2011). "South Georgia marine biodiversity richer than the Galápagos Islands".
    


54. 
    ^ "The Antarctic island that's richer in biodiversity than the Galapagos". 27 May 2011.
    


55. 
    ^ Marine Protected Areas Order 2012 Archived 6 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Gazette, 29 February 2012.
    


56. 
    ^ "SGSSI Marine Protection Area (Management Plan)" (PDF).
    


57. 
    ^ Good Planet: Denmark. Archived 12 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine Largest protected area in the world.
    


58. 
    ^ "King Edward Point Research Station, King Edward Point, Cumberland East Bay, South Georgia".
    


59. 
    ^ Powell, Michael. HMS Protector will be Endurance replacement, The News. Portsmouth, 11 January 2011.
    


60. 
    ^ "UK purchases Arctic patrol vessel HMS Protector". IHS Jane's 360. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
    


61. 
    ^ "HMS Endurance: Former ice patrol ship to be scrapped". BBC News. 7 October 2013. Retrieved 8 October 2013.
    

Further reading

• Forster, George (1777). A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772, 3, 4 and 5 (2 vols.). London.


• Headland, R. K. (1984). The Island of South Georgia. Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 0-521-25274-1.


• Wheeler, Tony (2004). The Falklands & South Georgia Island. Lonely Planet.
  ISBN 978-1740596435.

External links

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islandsat Wikipedia's sister projects

• 
  Definitions from Wiktionary
  


• 
  Media from Wikimedia Commons
  


• 
  Quotations from Wikiquote
  


• 
  Texts from Wikisource
  


• 
  Travel guide from Wikivoyage
  

Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap

Download coordinates as: KML · GPX

Government

• 
  South Georgia government website♠


• 
  "South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
  


• 
  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands at Curlie
  


• 
  Wikimedia Atlas of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
  


• Map of the Argentine claim over Islas Georgias del Sur y Sandwich del Sur

Others

• South Georgia Association website


• South Georgia Heritage Trust


• Live picture from the South Georgia webcam


• Operation Paraquat


• Argentine invasion of South Georgia


• South Georgia Wiki


• Constitution of South Georgia

v t e  South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Capital: King Edward Point
General	Coat of arms Commissioner Flag Foreign relations History Languages List of South Georgians Operation "Paraquet" South Georgia Museum .gs Sovereignty Invasion of South Georgia
Settlements / Whaling stations	Bird Island Grytviken Godthul Husvik King Edward Point Leith Harbour Ocean Harbour Prince Olav Harbour Rosita Harbour Stromness Corbeta Uruguay base
South Georgia islands	Annenkov Island Bird Island Black Rock Black Rocks Clerke Rocks Cooper Island Grass Island Grassholm Kupriyanov Islands Pickersgill Islands Prion Island Saddle Island Shag Rocks South Georgia Island Trinity Island Welcome Islands Willis Islands
South Sandwich islands	Bellingshausen Bristol Candlemas Cook Leskov Montagu Saunders Thule Vindication Visokoi Zavodovski Traversay Islands
Landmarks	Admiralty Peak Allardyce Range Fortuna Glacier Gold Harbour Larsen Harbour Mount Baume Mount Belinda Mount Cunningham Mount Paget Mount Roots Peggotty Bluff Salisbury Plain Salvesen Range Southern Thule Thatcher Peninsula Grace Glacier Lucas Glacier Bay of Isles Point Abrahamsen Sheep Point Stromness Bay Cumberland Bay Possession Bay Sheathbill Bay Sheer Point Busen Point

v t e Countries, territories and dependencies of the United Kingdom
Constituent countries	England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales
Overseas territories	Akrotiri and Dhekelia1 Anguilla Bermuda British Antarctic Territory2 British Indian Ocean Territory British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Gibraltar Montserrat Pitcairn Islands Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands
Crown dependencies	Bailiwick of Guernsey Guernsey Alderney Sark Isle of Man Jersey
Former colonies	List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom
1Sovereign Base Areas.   2 Partial suspension of sovereignty due to the Antarctic Treaty.

v t e British Empire (1583–1997)
.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal} Legend Current territory Former territory * Now a Commonwealth realm Now a member of the Commonwealth of Nations Historical flags of the British Empire
Europe 1542–1800 Ireland (integrated into UK) 1708–1757, 1763–1782 and 1798–1802 Minorca Since 1713 Gibraltar 1800–1813 Malta (Protectorate) 1813–1964 Malta (Colony) 1807–1890 Heligoland 1809–1864 Ionian Islands 1878–1960 Cyprus 1921–1931 Irish Free State
North America 17th century and before 18th century 19th and 20th century 1579 New Albion 1583–1907 Newfoundland 1605–1979 *Saint Lucia 1607–1776 Virginia Since 1619 Bermuda 1620–1691 Plymouth 1623–1883 Saint Kitts 1624–1966 *Barbados 1625–1650 Saint Croix 1627–1979 *Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1628–1883 Nevis 1629–1691 Massachusetts-Bay 1632–1776 Maryland since 1632 Montserrat 1632–1860 Antigua 1635–1644 Saybrook 1636–1776 Connecticut 1636–1776 Rhode Island 1637–1662 New Haven 1643–1860 Bay Islands Since 1650 Anguilla 1655–1850 Mosquito Coast 1655–1962 *Jamaica 1663–1712 Carolina 1664–1776 New-York 1665–1674 and 1702–1776 New-Jersey Since 1666 Virgin Islands Since 1670 Cayman Islands 1670–1973 *Bahamas 1670–1870 Rupert's Land 1671–1816 Leeward Islands 1674–1702 East Jersey 1674–1702 West Jersey 1680–1776 New Hampshire 1681–1776 Pennsylvania 1686–1689 New England 1691–1776 Massachusetts-Bay 1701–1776 Delaware 1712–1776 North-Carolina 1712–1776 South-Carolina 1713–1867 Nova-Scotia 1733–1776 Georgia 1754–1820 Cape Breton Island 1762–1974 *Grenada 1763–1978 Dominica 1763–1873 Prince Edward Island 1763–1791 Quebec 1763–1783 East Florida 1763–1783 West Florida 1784–1867 New Brunswick 1791–1841 Lower Canada 1791–1841 Upper Canada Since 1799 Turks and Caicos Islands 1818–1846 Columbia District/Oregon Country1 1833–1960 Windward Islands 1833–1960 Leeward Islands 1841–1867 Canada 1849–1866 Vancouver Island 1853–1863 Queen Charlotte Islands 1858–1866 British Columbia 1859–1870 North-Western Territory 1860–1981 *British Antigua and Barbuda 1862–1863 Stickeen 1866–1871 British Columbia 1867–1931 *Dominion of Canada2 1871–1964 Honduras 1882–1983 *Saint Kitts and Nevis 1889–1962 Trinidad and Tobago 1907–1949 Newfoundland3 1958–1962 West Indies Federation 1967–1983 West Indies Associated States 1. Occupied jointly with the United States. 2. In 1931, Canada and other British dominions obtained self-government through the Statute of Westminster. See Name of Canada. 3. Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion until it joined Canada in 1949.
South America 1631–1641 Providence Island 1651–1667 Willoughbyland 1670–1688 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands4 1831–1966 Guiana Since 1833 Falkland Islands5 Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands5 4. Now a department of Colombia. 5. Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982.
Africa 17th and 18th centuries 19th century 20th century Since 1658 Saint Helena14 1792–1961 Sierra Leone 1795–1803 Cape Colony Since 1815 Ascension Island14 Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14 1806–1910 Cape of Good Hope 1807–1808 Madeira 1810–1968 Mauritius 1816–1965 The Gambia 1856–1910 Natal 1862–1906 Lagos 1868–1966 Basutoland 1874–1957 Gold Coast 1882–1922 Egypt 1884–1900 Niger Coast 1884–1966 Bechuanaland 1884–1960 Somaliland 1887–1897 Zululand 1890–1962 Uganda 1890–1963 Zanzibar 1891–1964 Nyasaland 1891–1907 Central Africa 1893–1968 Swaziland 1895–1920 East Africa 1899–1956 Sudan 1900–1914 Northern Nigeria 1900–1914 Southern Nigeria 1900–1910 Orange River 1900–1910 Transvaal 1903–1976 Seychelles 1910–1931 South Africa 1914–1960 Nigeria 1915–1931 South-West Africa 1919–1961 Cameroons6 1920–1963 Kenya 1922–1961 Tanganyika6 1923–1965 and 1979–1980 Southern Rhodesia7 1924–1964 Northern Rhodesia 6. League of Nations mandate. 7. Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.
Asia 17th and 18th century 19th century 20th century 1685–1824 Bencoolen 1702–1705 Pulo Condore 1757–1947 Bengal 1762–1764 Manila and Cavite 1781–1784 and 1795–1819 Padang 1786–1946 Penang 1795–1948 Ceylon 1796–1965 Maldives 1811–1816 Java 1812–1824 Banka and Billiton 1819–1826 Malaya 1824–1948 Burma 1826–1946 Straits Settlements 1839–1967 Aden 1839–1842 Afghanistan 1841–1997 Hong Kong 1841–1946 Sarawak 1848–1946 Labuan 1858–1947 India 1874–1963 Borneo 1879–1919 Afghanistan (protectorate) 1882–1963 North Borneo 1885–1946 Unfederated Malay States 1888–1984 Brunei 1891–1971 Muscat and Oman 1892–1971 Trucial States 1895–1946 Federated Malay States 1898–1930 Weihai 1878–1960 Cyprus 1907–1949 Bhutan (protectorate) 1918–1961 Kuwait 1920–1932 Mesopotamia8 1921–1946 Transjordan8 1923–1948 Palestine8 1945–1946 South Vietnam 1946–1963 North Borneo 1946–1963 Sarawak 1946–1963 Singapore 1946–1948 Malayan Union 1948–1957 Federation of Malaya Since 1960 Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before as part of Cyprus) Since 1965 British Indian Ocean Territory (before as part of Mauritius and the Seychelles) 8 League of Nations mandate. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty
Oceania 18th and 19th centuries 20th century 1788–1901 New South Wales 1803–1901 Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania 1807–1863 Auckland Islands9 1824–1980 New Hebrides 1824–1901 Queensland 1829–1901 Swan River/Western Australia 1836–1901 South Australia since 1838 Pitcairn Islands 1841–1907 New Zealand 1846-1847 North Australia 1851–1901 Victoria 1874–1970 Fiji 1877–1976 Western Pacific Territories 1884–1949 Papua 1888–1901 Rarotonga/Cook Islands9 1889–1948 Union Islands9 1892–1979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands11 1893–1978 Solomon Islands12 1900–1970 Tonga 1900–1974 Niue9 1901–1942 *Australia 1907–1947 *New Zealand 1919–1942 and 1945–1968 Nauru 1919–1949 New Guinea 1949–1975 Papua and New Guinea13 9. Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand. 10. Suspended member. 11. Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu. 12. Now the *Solomon Islands. 13. Now *Papua New Guinea.
Antarctica and South Atlantic Since 1658 Saint Helena14 Since 1815 Ascension Island14 Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14 Since 1908 British Antarctic Territory15 1841–1933 Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia) 1841–1947 Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand) 14. Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena. 15. Both claimed in 1908; territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands).
Category Commons Portal

v t e Outlying territories of European countries
Territories under European sovereignty but closer to or on continents other than Europe (see inclusion criteria for further information).
Denmark	Greenland
France	Clipperton Island French Guiana French Polynesia French Southern and Antarctic Lands Adélie Land Crozet Islands Île Amsterdam Île Saint-Paul Kerguelen Islands Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean Guadeloupe Martinique Mayotte New Caledonia Réunion Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna
Italy	Pantelleria Pelagie Islands Lampedusa Lampione Linosa
Netherlands	Aruba Caribbean Netherlands Bonaire Saba Sint Eustatius Curaçao Sint Maarten
Norway	Bouvet Island Peter I Island Queen Maud Land
Portugal	Azores Madeira
Spain	Canary Islands Ceuta Melilla Plazas de soberanía Chafarinas Islands Peñón de Alhucemas Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera
United Kingdom	Anguilla Bermuda British Antarctic Territory British Indian Ocean Territory British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Montserrat Pitcairn Islands Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands

v t e Peri-Antarctic countries and overseas territories
Argentina Australia Heard Island and McDonald Islands Macquarie Island Bouvet Island Chile Falkland Islands French Southern and Antarctic Lands Kerguelen Islands New Zealand New Zealand Subantarctic Islands South Africa Prince Edward Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
"Peri-Antarctic" (meaning "close to the Antarctic") does not include territorial claims in Antarctica itself.

v t e Territorial disputes involving Argentina
Argentine Antarctica Falkland Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Southern Patagonian Ice Field
List of hostile incidents at the Argentine border

v t e Geography of the Americas
North America Central America South America Caribbean
Sovereign states	Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela
Dependencies and other territories	Anguilla Aruba Bermuda Bonaire British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Falkland Islands French Guiana Greenland Guadeloupe Martinique Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands

v t e Climate of the Americas
North America Central America South America Caribbean
Sovereign states	Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela
Dependencies and other territories	Anguilla Aruba Bermuda Bonaire British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Falkland Islands French Guiana Greenland Guadeloupe Martinique Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands US Virgin Islands

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