Mande languages

Mande
West Sudanic
Ethnicity	Mandé peoples
Geographic distribution	West Africa
Linguistic classification	Niger–Congo? Mande
Subdivisions	Manding–Kpelle (Central & Southwest) Samogo–Soninke (Northwest) Dan–Busa (East)
ISO 639-5	dmn
Linguasphere	00- (phylozone)
Glottolog	mand1469[1]

The Mande languages are spoken in several countries in Africa by the Mandé people and include Maninka, Mandinka, Soninke, Bambara, Dioula, Bozo, Mende, Susu, and Vai. There are millions of speakers, chiefly in Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast. The Mande languages have traditionally been considered a divergent branch of the Niger–Congo family, but that has always been controversial.

The group was first recognized in 1854 by Sigismund Wilhelm Koelle, in his Polyglotta Africana. He mentioned 13 languages under the heading North-Western High-Sudan Family, or Mandéga Family of Languages. In 1901, Maurice Delafosse made a distinction of two groups in his Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue. He speaks of a northern group mandé-tan and a southern group mandé-fu. The distinction was basically done only because the languages in the north use the expression tan for ten, and the southern languages use fu. In 1924, Louis Tauxier noted that the distinction is not well founded and there is at least a third subgroup he called mandé-bu. It was not until 1950 that André Prost supported that view and gave further details.

In 1958, Welmers published an article The Mande Languages where he divided the languages into three subgroups: North-West, South and East. His conclusion was based on lexicostatistic research. Joseph Greenberg followed that distinction in his The Languages of Africa (1963). Long (1971) and Gérard Galtier (1980) follow the distinction into three groups but with notable differences.

Contents

• 
  1 History
  


• 
  2 Classification
  


• 
  3 Characteristics
  


• 
  4 Cognates
  


• 
  5 See also
  


• 
  6 References
  


• 
  7 Sources
  


• 
  8 External links
  

History

Various opinions exist as to the age of the Mande languages. Greenberg has suggested that the Niger-Congo group, which in his view includes the Mande languages, began to break up around 7000 years BP. Its speakers practised a Neolithic culture, as indicated by the Proto-Niger-Congo words for "cow", "goat" and "cultivate".^[2]

Classification

Mande does not share the morphology characteristic of most of the Niger–Congo family, such as the noun-class system. Blench regards it as an early branch that, like Ijoid and perhaps Dogon, diverged before it developed. Dwyer (1998) compared it with other branches of Niger–Congo and finds that they form a coherent family, with Mande being the most divergent of the branches he considered. However, Dimmendaal (2008) argues that the evidence for inclusion is slim, with no new evidence for decades, and for now Mande is best considered an independent family.^[3]

Most internal Mande classifications are based on lexicostatistics, and the results are unreliable. See, for example, Vydrin (2009), based on a 100-word list.[1] The following classification from Kastenholz (1996) is based on lexical innovations and comparative linguistics; details of East Mande are from Dwyer (1989, 1996), summarized in Williamson & Blench 2000.

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Mande

East Mande   (Dan–Busa)  South(east)  Mande  Mano–Dan    Mano    Guro–Dan    Dan–Goo–Tura     Guro–Yaure        Nwa–Beng    Mwa–Wan     Gban–Beng        Bisa–Busa   Samo–Busa    Samo   Busa  languages    Busa–Boko     Shanga–Tyenga         Bissa       West Mande  Central West  (Manding–Kpelle) Central Mande  Manding–Jɔgɔ  Jɔgɔ–Jeri   Jeri     Jɔgɔ languages (Ligbi)      Manding–Vai    Vai–Kɔnɔ (and maybe Dama)    Manding–Mokole    Manding languages     Mokole languages           Susu–Yalunka      Southwest  Mande  Mende–Loma    Looma    Mende–Bandi    Bandi–Zialo     Mɛnde–Loko         Kpɛllɛ       Northwest (Samogo–Soninke)   Northwest  proper  Soninke–Bobo    Bɔbɔ    Soninke–Bozo    Soninke     Bozo         Samogo languages (partial: Duun–Sembla)       Jɔ (Jowulu)

Paperno describes Beng and extinct Gbin as two primary branches of Southern Mande.

Characteristics

Mande languages do not have the noun-class system or verbal extensions of the Atlantic–Congo languages and for which the Bantu languages are so famous, but Bobo has causative and intransitive forms of the verb. Southwestern Mande languages and Soninke have initial consonant mutation. Plurality is most often marked with a clitic; in some languages, with tone, as for example in Sembla. Pronouns often have alienable–inalienable and inclusive–exclusive distinctions. Word order in transitive clauses is subject–auxiliary–object–verb–adverb. Mainly postpositions are used. Within noun phrases, possessives come before the noun, and adjectives and plural markers after the verb; demonstratives are found with both orders (Williamson & Blench 2000).

Cognates

Here are some cognates from D. J. Dwyer (⟨j⟩ is [dʲ] or [d͡ʒ]):^[4]

GLOSS	PROTO- MANDÉ	Manding	Kono-Vai	Susu	Mandé (SW)	Soninké	Sembla	Bobo	San	Busa	Mano	Dan	Guro	Mwa
'mouth'	*da	da	da	dɛ	la	laqqe	jo	do	le	le	le	Di	le	le, di
'saliva'	*da-yi	da-ji	da-	sɛ-ye	la-yi	laxan-ji	jon-fago	dibe	se	le-i	le-yi	Di-li	leri	liri
'water'	*yi	je	yi	yi	ya	ji	jo	ji, zio	mun	i	yi	yi	yi	yi
'breast'	*n-koŋ	sin	susu	sisi	ŋeni	konbe	kye	ɲiŋi	ɲo	ɲo	ɲoŋ	ɲoŋ	ɲoŋ	ɲoŋ
'milk'	*n-kon-yi	nɔnɔ	susu-ji	xin-yɛ	gen-iya	-xatti	kye-n-dyo	n-yan-niŋi		n-yo-			n-yoŋ-yi	n-yoŋ-yi
'goat'	*bo(re)	ba	ba		ɓoli	sugo	bi	gwa	bwe	ble	bɔ	bɔ	bori	bɔ
'buck'	*bore-guren	ba-koro						gu-gura		ble-sa	bɔ-gon	bɔ-gon	gyagya	bɔ-guren
'sheep'	*saga	saga	bara-wa	yexe	ɓara	jaxe	sega	sɛge	sere	sa	baa	bla	bera	bla
'ram'	*saga-guren	saga-koro				segaba	kekyere	si-gula	da-gu		bla-gon	bra-gon	bla-gure

Note that in these cognates: 'saliva' = 'mouth'+'water', 'milk' = 'breast'+'water', 'buck (he-goat)' = 'goat'+'male', 'ram' = 'sheep'+'male'.

See also

• Manding languages


• Mandé


• Mende language

References

1. 
   ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Mande". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History..mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"""""""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}
   


2. 
   ^
   D.F. McCall, "The Cultural Map and Time Profile of the Mande Speaking Peoples," in C.T. Hodge (ed.). Papers on the Manding, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1971
   


3. 
   ^ Gerrit Dimmendaal, "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent", Language and Linguistics Compass 2/5:841.
   


4. 
   ^ Dwyer, David J. Towards Proto-Mande phonology.
   

Sources

• Bimson, Kent (1976). Comparative reconstruction of Mandekan. In Studies in African Linguistics, Vol 7, No 3 (1976).


• Delafosse, Maurice (1901) Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue. Paris : Leroux. 304 p.


• Delafosse, Maurice (1904) Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de soixante langues ou dialectes parlés à la Ivory Coast et dans les régions limitrophes, avec des notes linguistiques et ethnologiques. Paris : Leroux. 285 p.


• Halaoui, Nazam, Kalilou Tera, Monique Trabi (1983) Atlas des langues mandé – sud de Ivory Coast. Abidjan : ACCT-ILA.


• Kastenholz, Raimund (1996) Sprachgeschichte im West-Mande: Methoden und Rekonstruktionen. Mande Languages and Linguistics · Langues et Linguistique Mandé, 2. Köln : Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. 281 p.


• Steinthal, Heymann (1867) Die Mande-Negersprachen, psychologisch und phonetisch betrachtet. Berlin: Schade. 344 p.


• Sullivan, Terrence D. 2004 [1983]. A preliminary report of existing information on the Manding languages of West Africa: Summary and suggestions for future research. SIL Electronic Survey Report. Dallas, SIL International.


• 
  Vydrine, Valentin, T.G. Bergman and Matthew Benjamin (2000) Mandé language family of West Africa: Location and genetic classification. SIL Electronic Survey Report. Dallas, SIL International.


• 
  Vydrin, Valentin. On the problem of the Proto-Mande homeland // Вопросы языкового родства – Journal of Language Relationship 1, 2009, pp. 107–142.


• Welmers, William E.(1971) Niger–Congo, Mande. In Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa (Current Trends in Linguistics,7), Thomas A. Sebeok, Jade Berry, Joseph H. Greenberg et al. (eds.), 113–140. The Hague: Mouton.


• Williamson, Kay, and Roger Blench (2000) "Niger–Congo". In Heine & Nurse, eds., African Languages.
  

External links

• http://mandelang.kunstkamera.ru/index/langues_mande/


• 
  Mande page of the Journal of West African Languages.

v t e Mande languages
East Mande (Dan–Busa)	Southeast Beng Dan Gban Goo Guro Mano Mwa Tura Wan Yaure Bisa–Busa Bissa Boko Busa Tyenga Samo Shanga
Central West Mande (Manding–Kpelle)	Jogo languages Ligbi Tonjon Manding languages Bambara Bolon Dyula Jahanka Kassonke Mandinka Maninka Kita Marka Sininkere Mokole languages Kakabe Kuranko Lele Mixifore Southwest Mande Bandi Kpelle Loko Loma Mende Zialo Other Central Jeri Kono Susu Vai Yalunka
Northwest Mande (Samogo–Soninke)	Samogo languages Banka Duun Seenku Other Northwest Bobo Bozo Jowulu Soninke

v t e List of primary language families
Africa	Afro-Asiatic Arabic Sign Austronesian Banzsl Francosign Khoe–Kwadi Kx'a Niger–Congo Nilo-Saharan? Tanzanian Sign? Tuu Mande? Songhay? Ijaw? Ubangian? Kadu? Isolates Bangime Hadza Jalaa Sandawe Laal? Shabo? Isolate sign languages
Europe and Asia	Afro-Asiatic Ainu Arabic Sign Austroasiatic Austronesian Banzsl Chukotko-Kamchatkan Dravidian Eskimo–Aleut Francosign Germanosign Great Andamanese Hmong–Mien Hurro-Urartian Indo-European Indo-Pakistani Sign Japonic Kartvelian Koreanic Kra–Dai Mongolic Northeast Caucasian Northwest Caucasian Ongan Original Thai Sign Sino-Tibetan Shuwa gozoku Tungusic Turkic Tyrsenian Uralic Yeniseian Yukaghir Zhōngguó Shǒuyǔ Dené–Yeniseian? Altaic? Austronesian–Ongan? Austro-Tai? Sino-Austronesian? Digaro? Hrusish? Kho-Bwa? Miju? Siangic? Vasconic? Isolates Basque Burushaski Elamite Hattic Kusunda Nihali Nivkh Sumerian Isolate sign languages
New Guinea and the Pacific	Arai–Samaia Arafundi–Piawi Austronesian Baining Binanderean–Goilalan Border Bulaka River Central Solomons Chimbu–Wahgi Doso–Turumsa East Geelvink Bay East Strickland Eleman Engan Fas Kaure–Kosare Kiwaian Kutubuan Kwomtari Lakes Plain Lower Mamberamo Lower Sepik Madang Mairasi North Bougainville Pauwasi Ramu Senagi Sentani Sepik Skou South Bougainville Teberan Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran Torricelli Trans-Fly Trans–New Guinea Turama–Kikorian West Papuan Yam Yawa Yuat North Papuan? Northeast New Guinea? Papuan Gulf? Isolates Abinomn Anêm? Ata? Kol Kuot Porome Taiap? Pawaia Porome Sulka? Tambora Wiru Isolate sign languages
Australia	Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan Bunuban Darwin River Eastern Daly Eastern Tasmanian Garawan Iwaidjan Jarrakan Mirndi Northern Tasmanian Northeastern Tasmanian Nyulnyulan Pama–Nyungan Southern Daly Tangkic Wagaydyic Western Daly Western Tasmanian Worrorran Yangmanic (Wardaman) Isolates Giimbiyu Malak-Malak Marrgu Tiwi Wagiman
North America	Algic Alsea Caddoan Chimakuan Chinookan Chumashan Comecrudan Coosan Eskimo–Aleut Iroquoian Kalapuyan Keresan Maiduan Muskogean Na-Dene Palaihnihan Plains Sign Talk Plateau Penutian Pomoan Salishan Shastan Siouan Tanoan Tsimshianic Utian Uto-Aztecan Wakashan Wintuan Yokutsan Yukian Yuman–Cochimí Dené–Yeniseian? Hokan? Penutian? Isolates Chimariko Haida Karuk Kutenai Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Waikuri Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni Isolate sign languages
Mesoamerica	Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Meemul Tziij Misumalpan Mixe–Zoque Oto-Manguean Plains Sign Talk Tequistlatecan Totonacan Uto-Aztecan Xincan Totozoquean? Isolates Cuitlatec Huave Tarascan/Purépecha Isolate sign languages
South America	Arawakan Arauan Araucanian Arutani–Sape Aymaran Barbacoan Boran Borôroan Cahuapanan Cariban Catacaoan Chapacuran Charruan Chibchan Choco Chonan Guaicuruan Guajiboan Jê/Gê Harákmbut–Katukinan Jirajaran Jivaroan Kariri Katembri–Taruma Mascoian Matacoan Maxakalian Nadahup Nambikwaran Otomákoan Pano-Tacanan Peba–Yaguan Purian Quechuan Piaroa–Saliban Ticuna–Yuri Timotean Tiniguan Tucanoan Tupian Uru–Chipaya Witotoan Yabutian Yanomaman Zamucoan Zaparoan Bora–Witoto languages? Chimuan? Esmeralda–Yaruro? Hibito–Cholón? Lule–Vilela? Macro-Jê? Tequiraca–Canichana? Isolates (extant in 2000) Aikanã? Alacalufan Andoque? Camsá Candoshi Chimane Chiquitano Cofán? Fulniô Guató Hodï/Joti Irantxe? Itonama Karajá Krenak Kunza Leco Maku-Auari of Roraima Movima Mura-Pirahã Nukak? Ofayé Puinave Huaorani/Waorani Trumai Urarina Warao Yamana Yuracaré Isolate sign languages
See also	Language isolates Unclassified languages Manual languages Creoles Pidgins Mixed languages Artificial languages
Families in italics have no living members. Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.

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